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11 FIGURE 11.3: There is wide disparity in access to early childhood education programmes between and within countries Percentage of children aged 3 and 4 years attending an early childhood education programme, and percentage of first grade primary school students who participated in pre-primary education the previous year by wealth, selected countries, 2009–2015 100 80 60 % 40 Attended pre-primary school the previous year, richest 20% Attended pre-primary school the previous year, poorest 20% Attended pre-primary school the previous year 20 0 4-year-olds attending early childhood education programme 3-year-olds attending early childhood education programme Iraq, 2011 C. A. R., 2010 Mali, 2015 Bosnia/Herzeg., 2011–12 Benin, 2014 Lao PDR, 2011–12 Guinea-Bissau, 2014 Belize, 2011 Gambia, 2010 Myanmar, 2009–10 TFYR Macedonia, 2011 Kyrgyzstan, 2014 Bangladesh, 2012–13 Nigeria, 2011 Montenegro, 2013 Algeria, 2012–13 Swaziland, 2010 S. Tome/Principe, 2014 Sudan, 2014 Oman, 2014 Nepal, 2014 Dominican Rep., 2014 Suriname, 2010 Mongolia, 2013–14 Tunisia, 2011–12 Serbia, 2014 Kazakhstan, 2010–11 Qatar, 2014 Costa Rica, 2011 Argentina, 2011–12 Guyana, 2014 Panama, 2014 Saint Lucia, 2012 Rep. Moldova, 2014 El Salvador, 2014 Jamaica, 2011 Belarus, 2012 Viet Nam, 2013–14 Thailand, 2012–13 Source: MICS final and key findings reports. QUALITY The early childhood target explicitly emphasizes education of good quality. Quality may be understood in this context as the extent to which school and classroom settings (including structures and teaching processes) and systems support the holistic development of children, particularly those at risk of social exclusion. SYSTEMS OUTCOMES LEARNERS SCHOOL AND CLASSROOM SETTINGS The effectiveness of early childhood education in terms of outcomes (in particular, executive function, socialemotional development, motor development, and pre-academic skills that improve the school readiness of children) is described in the next section. This section focuses on tools that assess quality in processes and structures, and – to a lesser extent – systems. DEFINING QUALITY IN SETTINGS AND SYSTEMS Much of the information on quality in early childhood education has been generated through observation of classrooms, surveys of teachers and directors, and examination of policies and regulations. This approach to defining and measuring quality relies on observable attributes of early childhood education services that research has linked to children’s future school achievement and well-being. The approach has its critics, who argue that quality should be defined as context-based, subjective, relative and based on values (Dahlberg et al., 1999). CONTEXT Economic, political and social conditions 210 CHAPTER 11 | TARGET 4.2 – EARLY CHILDHOOD
11 Because of the range and diversity of early childhood programmes, these two viewpoints need to be integrated. Many observable attributes have been shown to promote child development, yet they must be relevant and applicable to each setting in which they are applied. The absence of standards can result in toleration of poor quality provision and a lack of guidance on how professional development programmes might be structured (Siraj-Blatchford and Wong, 1999). A pathway that draws upon measurement expertise while allowing for adaptation, revision and alignment with cultural values and discourse is essential for accurately measuring and comparing the quality of early childhood education. Consensus can be reached on many crucial dimensions of the process and structures of quality in early childhood settings. For example, the International Step by Step Association (ISSA), a non-government network of professionals especially active in Europe and Central Asia, has identified principles that underpin teaching practices of high quality (ISSA, 2009). They cover seven domains: interactions; family and community; inclusion, diversity, and values of democracy; assessment and planning; teaching strategies; learning environment; and professional development. Such frameworks can help form the basis for monitoring quality. Perhaps the most critical element of process quality is the interaction between teachers and children, its nature and depth, and the extent to which interactions enable children to be autonomous and stimulated (Mashburn et al., 2008; Britto et al., 2011). ISSA highlights three principles when assessing interactions: whether educators interact with children in a friendly and respectful manner that supports the development of each child’s construction of self/identity and learning; whether interactions help develop a learning community where all children are supported to reach their potential; and whether educators engage in purposeful, reciprocal interactions with other adults to support children’s development and learning. Early childhood education environments of high quality are also inclusive. Educators should provide opportunities for every child and family to learn and participate, identify children who are falling behind, and address individual differences in needs and skills. A key aspect of inclusiveness is that children have the opportunity to learn in their native language. In areas with linguistic One of the most critical elements of a quality pre-primary education is the interaction between teachers and children, and whether children are enabled to diversity, teachers who are fluent in children’s native tongues can have enormous benefits for language and literacy development (Ball, 2011). Much of the attention on monitoring be autonomous and quality has focused stimulated on quantitative measures – such as child/teacher ratios, class sizes, teacher qualifications, access to water and good hygiene, or availability of materials – because the data are easier to collect. However, while improvement in these measures can increase process quality, it does not ensure it. Studies show modest correlations between the two dimensions at the classroom or programme level (Yoshikawa et al., 2013). Finally, the quality of early childhood care and education systems is understood to play a major role in achieving desirable outcomes. Five elements of achieving quality have been identified for high income countries: setting quality goals and regulations; designing and implementing curriculum standards; improving qualifications, training and workforce conditions; engaging parents and communities; and advancing data collection, research and monitoring (OECD, 2012c). The applicability and relevance of these actions in low and middle income countries have not yet been addressed. In integrated and devolved systems, the quality of governance, both horizontal (across sectors) and vertical (across levels, from national to local), has also been considered critical (Britto et al., 2014). MEASURING QUALITY OF SETTINGS Several measures of early childhood education quality have been tested. They tend to involve trainees rating a setting using observation, documentation and interviews during a two- to four-hour visit. The most desirable characteristic of an effective measure of quality assessment is validity, i.e. the extent to which the element assessed is meaningful and has proven positive effects on child outcomes. Establishing validity becomes more complicated when aiming for a measure 2016 • GLOBAL EDUCATION MONITORING REPORT 211
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GLOBAL EDUCATION MONITORING REPORT
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This Report is an independent publi
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Foreword The 2016 Global Education
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Acknowledgements This report would
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The Global Education Monitoring Rep
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CHAPTER 6 • Partnerships: enablin
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List of figures, tables, and text b
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Figure 17.2: Most primary schools d
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HIGHLIGHTS Education for people and
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PLACE Urbanization puts strain on e
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Monitoring SDG 4 TARGET 4.1: Primar
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A young boy takes part in a refores
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I INTRODUCTION HIGHLIGHTS Transform
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I of environmental degradation and
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I BOX 0.2 THE SDGS WERE CREATED THR
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I (Box 0.4). These principles state
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I TABLE 0.1: How education is typic
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I The Incheon Declaration affirmed
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I The chapter documents the links b
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Here students in Indonesia learn ab
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1 KEY MESSAGES Living sustainably r
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1 other heat-trapping gases into th
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1 so that even countries with natur
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1 in responding to environmental ch
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1 petition, given more money or tak
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1 to these values are notions such
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1 Ethiopia, Kenya, Liberia, Mali, N
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1 “ If education progress is stal
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1 FIGURE 1.3: Poor children in the
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A man stands in a crop of cassava t
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2 KEY MESSAGES Education has a key
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2 on human welfare. Education helps
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2 BOX 2.1 Green industries demand p
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2 considerations and risk managemen
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2 developing regions (de Janvry and
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2 and supporting good governance (A
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2 FIGURE 2.1: Employment is being p
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2 growth does not necessarily mean
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2 jobs and decent earnings, even in
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2 disproportionately affected, acco
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2 Globally, earnings increase by ap
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2 with tertiary education, while th
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2 In many countries, green growth m
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Selina Akter, second year midwifery
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3 KEY MESSAGES Progress in health,
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3 health, water, sanitation, energy
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3 FIGURE 3.2: Women do more unpaid
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3 called for. Women’s empowerment
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3 FIGURE 3.5: There are large dispa
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3 FIGURE 3.7: Education marginaliza
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3 Tanzania revealed that many docto
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3 FIGURE 3.8: While being underweig
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3 FIGURE 3.10: In most countries, w
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3 2007, to 44 months. By 2007, birt
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3 outcomes in many countries, inclu
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3 that most behaviour changes are n
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3 they were twice as likely to hold
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3 Brazil, Indonesia, Rwanda and Sou
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Children look through a destroyed c
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4 KEY MESSAGES Getting children int
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4 EDUCATION MATTERS IN INCREASING P
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4 One direct form of political part
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4 tertiary education formed the cor
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4 “ 35% of out-of-school children
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4 “ Refugee children and adolesce
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4 has expanded in recent years to b
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4 Lack of knowledge and education s
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Favelas in Rio de Janeiro, which fo
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5 KEY MESSAGES Education must be in
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5 FIGURE 5.1A: We live in an increa
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5 adequate knowledge of the local l
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5 it in urban economies is importan
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5 “ Education gaps are often wide
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5 In the United States, the 1954 Su
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5 BOX 5.5 Better urban planning can
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5 FIGURE 5.4A: In Medellín, Colomb
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5 130 CHAPTER 5 | PLACE: INCLUSIVE
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CHAPTER 6 Partnerships: enabling co
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6 Finance..........................
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6 strategic aid, non-traditional pa
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6 Even with substantial increases i
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6 FIGURE 6.4: Inequities in aid to
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6 instructive examples of national
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6 vertical integration is often con
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6 projects had satisfactory outcome
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6 funds; mobilized civil society an
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CHAPTER 7 Projections: forecasting
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7 Projecting global educational att
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7 TABLE 7.2: Projected attainment r
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7 TABLE 7.3: Percentage of countrie
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7 FIGURE 7.4: Universal upper secon
Page 183 and 184: CHAPTER 8 Education and sustainable
Page 185 and 186: 8 Policy recommendations...........
Page 187 and 188: 8 Evidence gathered for this report
Page 189 and 190: 8 PROSPERITY In order to reduce pov
Page 191 and 192: 8 PARTNERSHIPS In order to ensure a
Page 193 and 194: CHAPTER 9 The challenges of monitor
Page 195 and 196: 9 Reaching consensus on the post-20
Page 197 and 198: 9 skills in information and communi
Page 199 and 200: 9 The Incheon Declaration requested
Page 201 and 202: 9 offer policy-makers sufficient in
Page 203 and 204: 10 CHAPTER 10 Sustainable Developme
Page 205 and 206: 10 FIGURE 10.1: More than 4 in 10 c
Page 207 and 208: 10 TABLE 10.2: Countries with the l
Page 209 and 210: 10 TABLE 10.3: Completion rates by
Page 211 and 212: 10 FIGURE 10.6: In almost one-quart
Page 213 and 214: 10 SYSTEMS LEARNERS SCHOOL AND CLAS
Page 215 and 216: 10 PROCESSES: CLASSROOM OBSERVATION
Page 217 and 218: 10 and classroom climate to policy-
Page 219 and 220: 10 FIGURE 10.9: In Latin America, a
Page 221 and 222: 10 BOX 10.3 A new module on learnin
Page 223 and 224: 10 assessment between 2007 and 2013
Page 225 and 226: 10 The second issue is that resourc
Page 227 and 228: 10 was administered For global moni
Page 231 and 232: 11 “ In 2014, 44% of children wer
Page 233: 11 ratio was 44%, while the percent
Page 237 and 238: 11 30 country reports in 3 areas, n
Page 239 and 240: 11 BOX 11.1 Defining positive and s
Page 241 and 242: 11 At the start of the process to d
Page 243 and 244: 11 FIGURE 11.5: About three-quarter
Page 247 and 248: 12 A typology of TVET recognizes th
Page 249 and 250: 12 are operated by the General Depa
Page 251 and 252: 12 Within its Systems Approach for
Page 253 and 254: 12 Administrative sources provide e
Page 255 and 256: 12 FIGURE 12.6: There are vast diff
Page 257 and 258: 12 But data in this area are still
Page 259 and 260: 12 University rankings Ever since f
Page 261 and 262: 12 for participation is job related
Page 263 and 264: 12 while in Latvia it declined unti
Page 265 and 266: 12 Since the 1990s, Mozambique has
Page 269 and 270: 13 in the social and political life
Page 271 and 272: 13 by a large task. The four themes
Page 273 and 274: 13 found that workers who scored be
Page 275 and 276: 13 A Standard & Poor’s module wit
Page 277 and 278: 13 CONCLUSION This chapter has revi
Page 281 and 282: 14 INEQUALITY MEASURES Measuring in
Page 283 and 284: 14 index equal to 0.86, and at the
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14 The parity index must be interpr
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14 BOX 14.2 The Inter-Agency Group
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14 for at least one of five reasons
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14 behaviour, play, development of
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14 trained in the bilingual curricu
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14 MIGRATION AND FORCED DISPLACEMEN
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14 There are important, sometimes i
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15 CHAPTER 15 Sustainable Developme
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15 Literacy is a basic cognitive sk
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15 BOX 15.1 Measuring participation
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15 FIGURE 15.3: In many countries,
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15 The assessment would need to hav
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15 may reduce the assessment’s va
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16 examines several initiatives tha
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16 COMPREHENSIVE SEXUALITY EDUCATIO
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16 ‘global thinking’, and half
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16 “ Close to 50% of secondary sc
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16 rights training in pre-service t
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16 community, including activities
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16 PISA included questions designed
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16 global population issues, which
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16 ENDNOTES 1. The third phase, 201
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17 “ In the least developed count
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17 entering and moving through the
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17 FIGURE 17.3: Electricity access
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17 it is the more common and often
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17 Violence and attacks against civ
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18 funds a programme managed by the
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18 Around 22,500 scholarships were
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18 About 70% of aid to higher educa
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19 FIGURE 19.1: The pupil/teacher r
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19 The coverage of both indicators
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19 educators were rarely experts in
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19 The survey also asked lower seco
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19 BOX 19.3 Upgrading ‘parents’
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19 As information on occupations is
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20 CHAPTER 20 20 Finance (selected
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20 Faced with similar challenges, t
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20 TABLE 20.1: Selected education f
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20 suggests the lower limit of the
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20 FIGURE 20.5: Information on even
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20 new module on equity and inclusi
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20 “ There is a 42% financing gap
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20 countries is that estimates excl
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20 middle income countries suggests
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21 CHAPTER 21 Education systems (se
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21 DIAGNOSTIC TOOLS FOR MONITORING
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21 While SABER has extended the evi
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21 LOOKING AHEAD In essence, polici
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22 CHAPTER 22 Education in the othe
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22 governments. It measures the num
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22 b. Under-5 mortality rate (death
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22 LIFELONG LEARNING AS A FACTOR CO
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23 CHAPTER 23 Priorities for monito
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23 facilitate well-informed and mea
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23 government and non-government sc
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23 not the main concern. Countries
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23 In light of the expanded scope o
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CHAPTER 24 Epilogue 385
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24 “ When the High-Level Politica
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24 ‘robust, voluntary, effective,
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Annex Statistical Tables Introducti
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5 Statistical tables 1 INTRODUCTION
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5 UIS encourages countries to make
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5 SDG 4 targets and related indicat
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5 Switzerland, The former Yugoslav
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TABLE 1 Background demographic stat
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TABLE 1 Part 1 (Continued) DEMOGRAP
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 1 Backgr
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 1 Part 2
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 2 SDG 4,
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 4 (Conti
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 10 SDG 4
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 10 (Cont
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 13 Part
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 13 Part
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 14 Domes
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477
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5 Aid tables INTRODUCTION 1 The dat
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TABLE 1 Bilateral and multilateral
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DIRECT AID TO POST-SECONDARY EDUCAT
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DIRECT AID TO SECONDARY EDUCATION D
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Page 515 and 516:
TABLE 4 ODA recipients (Continued)
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Glossary Adjusted net enrolment rat
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Net attendance rate (NAR). Number o
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Abbreviations AAPS AES AHELO AIDS A
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ILO IMF INES ISCED ISSA LAMP LEARNi
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Index This index covers the Introdu
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home learning environment 215 ICT f
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HIV education 292 NGOs 211 out-of-s
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see also traditional knowledge Cura
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education Education 2030 Framework
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Fiji TVET enrolment 223 violence in
Page 537 and 538:
ole of education 61, 78, 88, 165 gr
Page 539 and 540:
educational attainment 75, 76, 105
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working poverty 57, 61 years of edu
Page 543 and 544:
M Macao, China environmental educat
Page 545 and 546:
perseverance 249 tertiary education
Page 547 and 548:
primary education 314 secondary edu
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tertiary education 228, 229, 230, 2
Page 551 and 552:
women in politics 99 years of educa
Page 553 and 554:
small island developing States stud
Page 555 and 556:
perseverance 249 special educationa
Page 557 and 558:
within country disparity 186, 231 w
Page 559 and 560:
attitudes to business 253 benefits
Page 561 and 562:
Introduction Carson, R. 1962. Silen
Page 563 and 564:
Das, P. K. 2010. Climate Change and
Page 565 and 566:
Reyhner, J. and Eder, J. 2015. Amer
Page 567 and 568:
Aghion, P., Veugelers, R. and Serre
Page 569 and 570:
Hanushek, E. A., Schwerdt, G., Wied
Page 571 and 572:
Pritchett, L. 2006. Does learning t
Page 573 and 574:
Bhurosy, T. and Jeewon, R. 2014. Ov
Page 575 and 576:
Gunewardena, D. 2015. Why aren’t
Page 577 and 578:
McBride, D. E. and Parry, J. A. 201
Page 579 and 580:
United Cities and Local Governments
Page 581 and 582:
Campbell, D. E. 2008. Voice in the
Page 583 and 584:
Mendenhall, M. and Chopra, N. 2016.
Page 585 and 586:
Allen, H. 2013. Africa’s First Fu
Page 587 and 588:
Hanson, D. 2013. Assessing the Harl
Page 589 and 590:
Sirin, S. R. and Rogers-Sirin, L. 2
Page 591 and 592:
Fehling, M., Nelson, B. D. and Venk
Page 593 and 594:
Prichard, W. 2010. Taxation and Sta
Page 595 and 596:
Lager, A. C. J. and Torssander, J.
Page 597 and 598:
Bennell, P. and Akyeampong, K. 2007
Page 599 and 600:
Crouch, L. 2015. Stumbling at the f
Page 601 and 602:
Facione, P. A. 1990. Critical Think
Page 603 and 604:
Hardin, B. J., Vardell, R. and de C
Page 605 and 606:
Inter-Agency Working Group on TVET
Page 607 and 608:
Marfo, K. 2011. Envisioning an Afri
Page 609 and 610:
___. 2009b. INES Network for the Co
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Pew Research Center. 2015. Internet
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South Africa Government. 2013. Regu
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UNDP. 2004. Human Development Repor
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UNICEF and WHO. 2015. Progress on S
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Wortham, S. C. 2013. Common Charact
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