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3 FIGURE 3.4: Few women hold leadership positions in corporations and governments in middle and high income countries Percentage of women on executive boards and legislative bodies 50 45 40 35 Executive boards Legislative bodies Percentage of women 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Qatar Oman Kuwait Thailand Bahrain Brazil Japan Malaysia India Russian Fed. Turkey Chile Rep. of Korea Ireland Indonesia U. A. Emirates United States Saudi Arabia Israel United Kingdom Greece China Poland Canada Singapore France Australia Switzerland Austria Italy Portugal New Zealand Gemany Netherlands Mexico Denmark Belgium Norway Spain South Africa Finland Sweden Note: Data for female share in parliament are from 2015. Data for female share in executive boards comes from sources between 2010 and 2014. Source: United Nations (2015b). social organizations, including those of major religions (Domingo et al., 2015). Formal requirements for women’s representation in local government, such as reservation schemes in India and municipal representation in South Africa, may increase women’s visibility and some economic outcomes (Deininger et al., 2011), but their impact on underlying power dynamics is unclear (Beall, 2010). Gender-based violence is a significant global issue. Recent conflict, instability and migration have been associated with particularly high levels of sexual and gender-based violence. In many countries, social media are creating new spaces for sexual harassment (Parkes and Unterhalter, 2015). Around one-third of women worldwide have experienced physical and/or sexual violence from an intimate partner, or sexual violence by a non-partner, at some point in their lives; in most countries less than 40% of them sought help at any point (United Nations, 2015b). Due to a combination of biological and social factors, many health challenges have a gendered dimension. In low income countries, a woman living in a rural area is 38% less likely to give birth with a skilled health professional than her urban counterpart (UN Women, 2015). In some countries, limited reproductive rights mean that maternal conditions and AIDS are the leading causes of death for young women; the right to abortion is selectively available and frequently challenged, including in the United States. More than 200 million girls and women alive today have been subject to female genital mutilation (UNICEF, 2016). Men, meanwhile, experience a higher burden of disease and have higher risk behaviour and lower life expectancy than women (Hawkes and Buse, 2013). Legal rights for women have not translated into gender equality. Therefore, to clarify the issue and motivate responses, UN Women has defined ‘substantive equality for women’ as encompassing ‘three interconnected dimensions along which actions need to be taken’ to develop real equality: redressing women’s socioeconomic disadvantage, addressing stereotyping, stigma and violence, and strengthening agency, voice and participation (UN Women, 2015). A holistic approach is 2016 • GLOBAL EDUCATION MONITORING REPORT 71
3 called for. Women’s empowerment and overall economic development are strongly interrelated (Duflo, 2012). Legal reforms complemented by economic and social policies are needed to undo past inequality and create conditions in which women’s rights are respected and much more equitable conditions supported. Finally, to address gender inequality, critics advocate a more nuanced, holistic understanding of the concept of gender in which, for example, ‘gender’ is not equivalent to ‘girls and women’ but it is understood that unequal gender relations and gendered preconceptions also harm men and boys, and that the involvement of men and boys is integral to improving gender-related power relations (Edström et al., 2015). At the same time, efforts to remedy gender imbalances need to recognize how societies create and enforce notions of gender, and how power relations and conceptions of feminine and masculine roles translate to institutional practices and norms (Connell, 2009). Indigenous populations are often among the most disadvantaged groups. A global analysis of key education, health and poverty indicators of populations who met literature-based ethnic or linguistic definitions of indigeneity found that for nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralists in Africa, education indicators were much worse than the national average, and the education gap was much higher than gaps in health and other indicators. In Latin America, stunting, water deprivation and primary enrolment rates were worse among indigenous populations. In some countries in Asia, the well-being of some indigenous groups was found to lag behind national averages, while others performed just as well on multiple indicators (Macdonald, 2012). Yet despite vulnerability based on socio-economic status and health outcomes, many indigenous communities maintain lifestyles and engage in practices that contribute to the sustainability aspirations of the new SDG agenda (see Chapter 1: Planet). VULNERABLE POPULATIONS REMAIN ON THE MARGINS OF SOCIETY AND LACK EQUAL ACCESS TO SOCIO-ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY Inequality is the result of both income disparity (see Chapter 2: Prosperity) and the marginalization of groups that experience intersecting disadvantages relating to factors such as poverty, ethnicity, gender, disability and location. For instance, people with disabilities are significantly more likely to be poor and less likely to be employed. An analysis of 15 lower income countries in Asia, Latin America People with disabilities and Africa using are significantly 2002–2003 data found more likely to be poor that in a majority of the countries, disability was and less likely to be significantly associated employed with lack of primary school completion and employment, and higher health expenditure (Mitra et al., 2013). Also with regards to health, for example, a qualitative analysis of the experience of pregnancy among disabled women in Nepal suggested a need to improve health worker training; health workers felt unprepared to meet the needs of disabled married women who were pregnant or considering pregnancy (Morrison et al., 2014). Caste and religious minority status continue to determine disadvantage on various indicators of health, inequality, poverty, education, employment, wages, gender empowerment and access to public goods. For example, in India higher caste Hindu households hold distinct advantages in these areas over scheduled caste, scheduled tribe and Muslim households (Borooah et al., 2015). Many other large subgroups remain at the fringe of society and legality, such as child labourers and orphans, and the growing numbers of refugees and forcibly displaced populations affected by conflict and climate change (see Chapters 4: Peace and 5: Place). Moreover, the extent of marginalization may be underestimated: some recent studies suggest that 250 million to 350 million people may be missing from global estimates because they are undercounted or omitted from household surveys (Carr-Hill, 2013; Villegas and Samman, 2015). The extent of persistent discrimination by race, religion and ethnicity is confirmed by a growing body of field experiments. In some studies, real or fictitious individuals are matched on all relevant characteristics except those presumed to lead to discrimination, such as race, ethnicity and gender. How they fare in job or housing applications or purchases of goods is then compared. A seminal field experiment in the United States found that white candidates were called back far more than black candidates with otherwise identical CVs, and that the better the CVs, the more the race gap widened (Bertrand and Mullainathan, 2004). Evidence 72 CHAPTER 3 | PEOPLE: INCLUSIVE SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
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GLOBAL EDUCATION MONITORING REPORT
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This Report is an independent publi
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Foreword The 2016 Global Education
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Acknowledgements This report would
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The Global Education Monitoring Rep
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CHAPTER 6 • Partnerships: enablin
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List of figures, tables, and text b
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Figure 17.2: Most primary schools d
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HIGHLIGHTS Education for people and
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PLACE Urbanization puts strain on e
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Monitoring SDG 4 TARGET 4.1: Primar
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A young boy takes part in a refores
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I INTRODUCTION HIGHLIGHTS Transform
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I of environmental degradation and
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I BOX 0.2 THE SDGS WERE CREATED THR
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I (Box 0.4). These principles state
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I TABLE 0.1: How education is typic
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I The Incheon Declaration affirmed
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I The chapter documents the links b
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Here students in Indonesia learn ab
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1 KEY MESSAGES Living sustainably r
Page 43 and 44: 1 other heat-trapping gases into th
Page 45 and 46: 1 so that even countries with natur
Page 47 and 48: 1 in responding to environmental ch
Page 49 and 50: 1 petition, given more money or tak
Page 51 and 52: 1 to these values are notions such
Page 53 and 54: 1 Ethiopia, Kenya, Liberia, Mali, N
Page 55 and 56: 1 “ If education progress is stal
Page 57 and 58: 1 FIGURE 1.3: Poor children in the
Page 59 and 60: A man stands in a crop of cassava t
Page 61 and 62: 2 KEY MESSAGES Education has a key
Page 63 and 64: 2 on human welfare. Education helps
Page 65 and 66: 2 BOX 2.1 Green industries demand p
Page 67 and 68: 2 considerations and risk managemen
Page 69 and 70: 2 developing regions (de Janvry and
Page 71 and 72: 2 and supporting good governance (A
Page 73 and 74: 2 FIGURE 2.1: Employment is being p
Page 75 and 76: 2 growth does not necessarily mean
Page 77 and 78: 2 jobs and decent earnings, even in
Page 79 and 80: 2 disproportionately affected, acco
Page 81 and 82: 2 Globally, earnings increase by ap
Page 83 and 84: 2 with tertiary education, while th
Page 85 and 86: 2 In many countries, green growth m
Page 87 and 88: Selina Akter, second year midwifery
Page 89 and 90: 3 KEY MESSAGES Progress in health,
Page 91 and 92: 3 health, water, sanitation, energy
Page 93: 3 FIGURE 3.2: Women do more unpaid
Page 97 and 98: 3 FIGURE 3.5: There are large dispa
Page 99 and 100: 3 FIGURE 3.7: Education marginaliza
Page 101 and 102: 3 Tanzania revealed that many docto
Page 103 and 104: 3 FIGURE 3.8: While being underweig
Page 105 and 106: 3 FIGURE 3.10: In most countries, w
Page 107 and 108: 3 2007, to 44 months. By 2007, birt
Page 109 and 110: 3 outcomes in many countries, inclu
Page 111 and 112: 3 that most behaviour changes are n
Page 113 and 114: 3 they were twice as likely to hold
Page 115 and 116: 3 Brazil, Indonesia, Rwanda and Sou
Page 117 and 118: Children look through a destroyed c
Page 119 and 120: 4 KEY MESSAGES Getting children int
Page 121 and 122: 4 EDUCATION MATTERS IN INCREASING P
Page 123 and 124: 4 One direct form of political part
Page 125 and 126: 4 tertiary education formed the cor
Page 127 and 128: 4 “ 35% of out-of-school children
Page 129 and 130: 4 “ Refugee children and adolesce
Page 131 and 132: 4 has expanded in recent years to b
Page 133 and 134: 4 Lack of knowledge and education s
Page 135 and 136: Favelas in Rio de Janeiro, which fo
Page 137 and 138: 5 KEY MESSAGES Education must be in
Page 139 and 140: 5 FIGURE 5.1A: We live in an increa
Page 141 and 142: 5 adequate knowledge of the local l
Page 143 and 144: 5 it in urban economies is importan
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5 “ Education gaps are often wide
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5 In the United States, the 1954 Su
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5 BOX 5.5 Better urban planning can
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5 FIGURE 5.4A: In Medellín, Colomb
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5 130 CHAPTER 5 | PLACE: INCLUSIVE
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CHAPTER 6 Partnerships: enabling co
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6 Finance..........................
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6 strategic aid, non-traditional pa
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6 Even with substantial increases i
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6 FIGURE 6.4: Inequities in aid to
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6 instructive examples of national
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6 vertical integration is often con
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6 projects had satisfactory outcome
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6 funds; mobilized civil society an
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CHAPTER 7 Projections: forecasting
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7 Projecting global educational att
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7 TABLE 7.2: Projected attainment r
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7 TABLE 7.3: Percentage of countrie
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7 FIGURE 7.4: Universal upper secon
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CHAPTER 8 Education and sustainable
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8 Policy recommendations...........
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8 Evidence gathered for this report
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8 PROSPERITY In order to reduce pov
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8 PARTNERSHIPS In order to ensure a
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CHAPTER 9 The challenges of monitor
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9 Reaching consensus on the post-20
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9 skills in information and communi
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9 The Incheon Declaration requested
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9 offer policy-makers sufficient in
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10 CHAPTER 10 Sustainable Developme
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10 FIGURE 10.1: More than 4 in 10 c
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10 TABLE 10.2: Countries with the l
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10 TABLE 10.3: Completion rates by
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10 FIGURE 10.6: In almost one-quart
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10 SYSTEMS LEARNERS SCHOOL AND CLAS
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10 PROCESSES: CLASSROOM OBSERVATION
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10 and classroom climate to policy-
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10 FIGURE 10.9: In Latin America, a
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10 BOX 10.3 A new module on learnin
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10 assessment between 2007 and 2013
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10 The second issue is that resourc
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10 was administered For global moni
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11 “ In 2014, 44% of children wer
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11 ratio was 44%, while the percent
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11 Because of the range and diversi
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11 30 country reports in 3 areas, n
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11 BOX 11.1 Defining positive and s
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11 At the start of the process to d
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11 FIGURE 11.5: About three-quarter
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12 A typology of TVET recognizes th
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12 are operated by the General Depa
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12 Within its Systems Approach for
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12 Administrative sources provide e
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12 FIGURE 12.6: There are vast diff
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12 But data in this area are still
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12 University rankings Ever since f
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12 for participation is job related
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12 while in Latvia it declined unti
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12 Since the 1990s, Mozambique has
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13 in the social and political life
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13 by a large task. The four themes
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13 found that workers who scored be
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13 A Standard & Poor’s module wit
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13 CONCLUSION This chapter has revi
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14 INEQUALITY MEASURES Measuring in
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14 index equal to 0.86, and at the
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14 The parity index must be interpr
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14 BOX 14.2 The Inter-Agency Group
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14 for at least one of five reasons
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14 behaviour, play, development of
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14 trained in the bilingual curricu
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14 MIGRATION AND FORCED DISPLACEMEN
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14 There are important, sometimes i
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15 Literacy is a basic cognitive sk
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15 BOX 15.1 Measuring participation
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15 FIGURE 15.3: In many countries,
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15 The assessment would need to hav
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15 may reduce the assessment’s va
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16 examines several initiatives tha
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16 COMPREHENSIVE SEXUALITY EDUCATIO
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16 ‘global thinking’, and half
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16 “ Close to 50% of secondary sc
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16 rights training in pre-service t
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16 community, including activities
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16 PISA included questions designed
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16 global population issues, which
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16 ENDNOTES 1. The third phase, 201
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17 “ In the least developed count
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17 entering and moving through the
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17 FIGURE 17.3: Electricity access
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17 it is the more common and often
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17 Violence and attacks against civ
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18 funds a programme managed by the
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18 Around 22,500 scholarships were
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18 About 70% of aid to higher educa
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19 FIGURE 19.1: The pupil/teacher r
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19 The coverage of both indicators
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19 educators were rarely experts in
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19 The survey also asked lower seco
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19 BOX 19.3 Upgrading ‘parents’
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19 As information on occupations is
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20 CHAPTER 20 20 Finance (selected
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20 Faced with similar challenges, t
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20 TABLE 20.1: Selected education f
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20 suggests the lower limit of the
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20 FIGURE 20.5: Information on even
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20 new module on equity and inclusi
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20 “ There is a 42% financing gap
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20 countries is that estimates excl
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20 middle income countries suggests
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21 CHAPTER 21 Education systems (se
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21 DIAGNOSTIC TOOLS FOR MONITORING
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21 While SABER has extended the evi
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21 LOOKING AHEAD In essence, polici
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22 CHAPTER 22 Education in the othe
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22 governments. It measures the num
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22 b. Under-5 mortality rate (death
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22 LIFELONG LEARNING AS A FACTOR CO
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23 CHAPTER 23 Priorities for monito
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23 facilitate well-informed and mea
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23 government and non-government sc
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23 not the main concern. Countries
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23 In light of the expanded scope o
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CHAPTER 24 Epilogue 385
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24 “ When the High-Level Politica
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24 ‘robust, voluntary, effective,
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Annex Statistical Tables Introducti
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5 Statistical tables 1 INTRODUCTION
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5 UIS encourages countries to make
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5 SDG 4 targets and related indicat
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5 Switzerland, The former Yugoslav
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TABLE 1 Background demographic stat
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TABLE 1 Part 1 (Continued) DEMOGRAP
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 1 Backgr
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 1 Part 2
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 2 SDG 4,
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 4 (Conti
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 10 SDG 4
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 10 (Cont
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Page 491 and 492:
STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 13 Part
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 13 Part
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 14 Domes
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Page 501 and 502:
477
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5 Aid tables INTRODUCTION 1 The dat
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TABLE 1 Bilateral and multilateral
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DIRECT AID TO POST-SECONDARY EDUCAT
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DIRECT AID TO SECONDARY EDUCATION D
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Page 513 and 514:
Page 515 and 516:
TABLE 4 ODA recipients (Continued)
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Glossary Adjusted net enrolment rat
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Net attendance rate (NAR). Number o
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Abbreviations AAPS AES AHELO AIDS A
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ILO IMF INES ISCED ISSA LAMP LEARNi
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Index This index covers the Introdu
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home learning environment 215 ICT f
Page 529 and 530:
HIV education 292 NGOs 211 out-of-s
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see also traditional knowledge Cura
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education Education 2030 Framework
Page 535 and 536:
Fiji TVET enrolment 223 violence in
Page 537 and 538:
ole of education 61, 78, 88, 165 gr
Page 539 and 540:
educational attainment 75, 76, 105
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working poverty 57, 61 years of edu
Page 543 and 544:
M Macao, China environmental educat
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perseverance 249 tertiary education
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primary education 314 secondary edu
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tertiary education 228, 229, 230, 2
Page 551 and 552:
women in politics 99 years of educa
Page 553 and 554:
small island developing States stud
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perseverance 249 special educationa
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within country disparity 186, 231 w
Page 559 and 560:
attitudes to business 253 benefits
Page 561 and 562:
Introduction Carson, R. 1962. Silen
Page 563 and 564:
Das, P. K. 2010. Climate Change and
Page 565 and 566:
Reyhner, J. and Eder, J. 2015. Amer
Page 567 and 568:
Aghion, P., Veugelers, R. and Serre
Page 569 and 570:
Hanushek, E. A., Schwerdt, G., Wied
Page 571 and 572:
Pritchett, L. 2006. Does learning t
Page 573 and 574:
Bhurosy, T. and Jeewon, R. 2014. Ov
Page 575 and 576:
Gunewardena, D. 2015. Why aren’t
Page 577 and 578:
McBride, D. E. and Parry, J. A. 201
Page 579 and 580:
United Cities and Local Governments
Page 581 and 582:
Campbell, D. E. 2008. Voice in the
Page 583 and 584:
Mendenhall, M. and Chopra, N. 2016.
Page 585 and 586:
Allen, H. 2013. Africa’s First Fu
Page 587 and 588:
Hanson, D. 2013. Assessing the Harl
Page 589 and 590:
Sirin, S. R. and Rogers-Sirin, L. 2
Page 591 and 592:
Fehling, M., Nelson, B. D. and Venk
Page 593 and 594:
Prichard, W. 2010. Taxation and Sta
Page 595 and 596:
Lager, A. C. J. and Torssander, J.
Page 597 and 598:
Bennell, P. and Akyeampong, K. 2007
Page 599 and 600:
Crouch, L. 2015. Stumbling at the f
Page 601 and 602:
Facione, P. A. 1990. Critical Think
Page 603 and 604:
Hardin, B. J., Vardell, R. and de C
Page 605 and 606:
Inter-Agency Working Group on TVET
Page 607 and 608:
Marfo, K. 2011. Envisioning an Afri
Page 609 and 610:
___. 2009b. INES Network for the Co
Page 611 and 612:
Pew Research Center. 2015. Internet
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South Africa Government. 2013. Regu
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UNDP. 2004. Human Development Repor
Page 617 and 618:
UNICEF and WHO. 2015. Progress on S
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Wortham, S. C. 2013. Common Charact
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