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11 WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO BE DEVELOPMENTALLY ON TRACK? ‘Developmentally on track’ means children are developing the skills and competencies that will allow them to participate successfully in their environments and reach their current and future developmental potential. Deciding how best to measure child development is complex. Four significant themes are outlined below. First, development proceeds in trajectories. Young children’s development at the start of school is the extension of a trajectory that began at conception and continues through infancy and toddlerhood. Disparities in children’s cognitive and language development are apparent as early as 4 months of age, and tend to widen, not decrease, over time (Fernald et al., 2012). Interpretation of data on child development and learning at a given point in time, such as the start of school, should be based on a view of children’s development as Disparities in cognitive a trajectory that begins at birth. and language development are apparent as early as 4 Second, months of age, and tend patterns of child development to widen, not decrease, are similar in all over time settings, but environmental influences have a profound impact on development. Genetic information leads to common developmental patterns in all people, such as the acquisition of early language and communication and the first expression of cognitive problem-solving skills. But nearly all human traits, skills and competencies reflect a complex set of interactions between genetic information and environmental stimuli, with some traits more strongly influenced by environment or genes than others (van Izjendoorn et al., 2011). The strongest, most reliable predictor of young children’s development in both high and low income countries is the home environment, even when children attend high quality pre-schools (Bornstein et al., 2015). Stimulating, supportive home environments can be measured by asking about the frequency of activities or observing caregiver–child interactions (Box 11.1). Children who are given more opportunities to communicate, room to explore and cognitive stimulation develop skills faster and more consistently. Children develop language faster when spoken to more frequently (Hart and Risley, 1995; Snow, 1997) regardless of whether the frequency of language interaction varies due to cultural preference (e.g. some cultures hold babies on the backs of adults, where they have less face-to-face interaction) or an inability to fully bond with a dedicated, emotionally available caregiver. It is not yet known whether children’s failure to show competencies in certain cultures is due to lack of cultural relevance or inadequacy of stimulation. Measurement must accept this lack of clarity, and continue to test core assumptions on the universality of children’s development. Third, some areas of child development, such as the accumulation of vocabulary words and early literacy skills, proceed in a linear fashion and are straightforward to measure (Thompson, 2014). Other developments, such as understanding that people have diverse perspectives, emerge at about the same age in more than one culture, at the age of about 4 years (Sabbagh et al., 2006). In yet others, development at an early age does not seem to show much relation to learning and achievement over time in intermediate years, but emerges later as a strong influence (Vandell et al., 2010). In addition, development in one area fuels development in others. Language development, for example, has a strong influence on social interactions because children with better language skills can communicate better with peers. This means that measuring early childhood development should include all domains of development, rather than focusing only on early academic skills. For some areas, the effects of early childhood development may take several years to become apparent. Fourth, while the science underlying basic developmental processes is clear, defining ‘on track’ development has not yet been fully established for children in many cultures. Measurement is relativistic: standards for what children should be able to do are informed by knowing what is typical, or what children around them can do. What is normative is ideally established through the creation of normal distributions of children’s development and skills acquisition in various parts of the world, with ages at which children are typically demonstrating specific skills. It is difficult to define normative development in a globally comparable manner because culture influences development and, primarily, because the extent to 214 CHAPTER 11 | TARGET 4.2 – EARLY CHILDHOOD
11 BOX 11.1 Defining positive and stimulating home learning environments While rapid brain development takes place during the first three to four years, at this age most children lack access to organized learning opportunities outside the home. To draw attention to this issue, the proposed thematic monitoring framework includes an indicator on the ‘percentage of children under 5 years of age experiencing positive and stimulating home learning environments’. A stimulating home learning environment provides educational interactions and learning materials. UNICEF’s MICS collects comparable information on both. In relation to interactions, the surveys estimate whether adult household members have engaged children aged 36 to 59 months in reading or looking at picture books; telling stories; singing songs; going outside the home; playing; and naming, counting and/or drawing things. UNICEF reported the percentage of children with whom adult household members had engaged in at least four of these activities in the past three days over 2009–2012. While adults had engaged almost all children in at least four activities in Ukraine, that was true for only 40% of children in Ghana. The probability that the father had engaged in at least one activity was typically about 25 percentage points lower, although smaller gaps were observed in countries including Jordan, Iraq and Tunisia (Figure 11.4a). Comparisons are affected by considerable differences between countries in the extent to which children live with their biological father. In 2013, UNICEF changed its reporting, and the new way of presenting results suggests that levels of parental engagement are actually considerably lower. In Zimbabwe, 43% of children had engaged in at least four activities in the past three days with an adult household member. About 75% of 3- to 4-year-olds lived with their biological mother but just 17% had engaged in at least four activities with her. And while about 50% of children lived with their biological father, only 3% had engaged in at least four activities with him. With respect to learning materials, the MICS collects information on the presence of children’s books at home. Across 54 mostly low and middle income countries over 2010–2015, 19% of households had at least 3 books and 7.5% had at least 10 books. Among the poorest 20%, less than 1% of households had at least 10 books at home (Figure 11.4b). FIGURE 11.4: Home learning environments differ substantially between countries % 100 80 60 40 20 0 a. Percentage of children age 36 to 59 months with whom an adult household member and the father engaged in activities that promote learning and school readiness in the past three days, 2009–2012 Ghana, 2011 Gambia, 2010 Any adult, at least four activities Father, at least one activity 100 b. Percentage of children under age 5 who live in homes where children’s books are present, 2010–2015 3 books 80 10 books 10 books, poorest 20% 60 Mali, 2015 Chad, 2010 Guinea-Bissau, 2014 D. R. Congo, 2013–14 C. A. R., 2010 Congo, 2011–12 Gambia, 2010 Malawi, 2013–14 Benin, 2014 Togo, 2010 Sierra Leone, 2010 Zimbabwe, 2014 Cameroon, 2011 Swaziland, 2010 Cambodia, 2014 Nepal, 2014 Lao PDR, 2011–12 Iraq, 2011 S. Tome/Principe, 2014 Nigeria, 2011 Ghana, 2011 Bhutan, 2010 % 40 20 0 Bangladesh, 2012–13 Dominican Rep., 2014 Algeria, 2012–13 Tunisia, 2011–12 El Salvador, 2014 Palestine, 2014 Jordan, 2012 Oman, 2014 Panama, 2014 Suriname, 2010 Viet Nam, 2013–14 Kyrgyzstan, 2014 Mongolia, 2013–14 Costa Rica, 2011 Qatar, 2014 Belize, 2011 Thailand, 2012–13 Guyana, 2014 Cuba, 2014 Kazakhstan, 2010–11 Jamaica, 2011 TFYR Macedonia, 2011 Bosnia/Herzeg., 2011–12 Uruguay, 2014 Argentina, 2011–12 Saint Lucia, 2012 Rep. Moldova, 2014 Serbia, 2014 Montenegro, 2013 Barbados, 2014 Ukraine, 2012 Belarus, 2012 Swaziland, 2010 Bhutan, 2010 Sierra Leone, 2010 Mauritania, 2011 Congo, 2011–12 Lao PDR, 2011-12 Iraq, 2011 D. R. Congo, 2010 Togo, 2010 Cameroon, 2011 Nigeria, 2011 Costa Rica, 2011 Chad, 2010 Tunisia, 2011–12 Suriname, 2010 C. A. R., 2010 Jordan, 2012 Argentina, 2011–12 Belize, 2011 Jamaica, 2011 DPR Korea, 2009 Kazakhstan, 2010–11 TFYR Macedonia, 2011 Thailand, 2012 Saint Lucia, 2012 Bosnia/Herzeg., 2011–12 Belarus, 2012 Ukraine, 2012 Source: MICS final reports. Sources: Bradley and Caldwell (1995); Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency (2015). 2016 • GLOBAL EDUCATION MONITORING REPORT 215
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GLOBAL EDUCATION MONITORING REPORT
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This Report is an independent publi
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Foreword The 2016 Global Education
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Acknowledgements This report would
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The Global Education Monitoring Rep
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CHAPTER 6 • Partnerships: enablin
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List of figures, tables, and text b
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Figure 17.2: Most primary schools d
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HIGHLIGHTS Education for people and
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PLACE Urbanization puts strain on e
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Monitoring SDG 4 TARGET 4.1: Primar
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A young boy takes part in a refores
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I INTRODUCTION HIGHLIGHTS Transform
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I of environmental degradation and
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I BOX 0.2 THE SDGS WERE CREATED THR
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I (Box 0.4). These principles state
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I TABLE 0.1: How education is typic
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I The Incheon Declaration affirmed
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I The chapter documents the links b
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Here students in Indonesia learn ab
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1 KEY MESSAGES Living sustainably r
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1 other heat-trapping gases into th
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1 so that even countries with natur
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1 in responding to environmental ch
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1 petition, given more money or tak
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1 to these values are notions such
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1 Ethiopia, Kenya, Liberia, Mali, N
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1 “ If education progress is stal
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1 FIGURE 1.3: Poor children in the
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A man stands in a crop of cassava t
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2 KEY MESSAGES Education has a key
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2 on human welfare. Education helps
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2 BOX 2.1 Green industries demand p
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2 considerations and risk managemen
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2 developing regions (de Janvry and
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2 and supporting good governance (A
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2 FIGURE 2.1: Employment is being p
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2 growth does not necessarily mean
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2 jobs and decent earnings, even in
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2 disproportionately affected, acco
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2 Globally, earnings increase by ap
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2 with tertiary education, while th
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2 In many countries, green growth m
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Selina Akter, second year midwifery
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3 KEY MESSAGES Progress in health,
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3 health, water, sanitation, energy
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3 FIGURE 3.2: Women do more unpaid
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3 called for. Women’s empowerment
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3 FIGURE 3.5: There are large dispa
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3 FIGURE 3.7: Education marginaliza
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3 Tanzania revealed that many docto
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3 FIGURE 3.8: While being underweig
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3 FIGURE 3.10: In most countries, w
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3 2007, to 44 months. By 2007, birt
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3 outcomes in many countries, inclu
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3 that most behaviour changes are n
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3 they were twice as likely to hold
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3 Brazil, Indonesia, Rwanda and Sou
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Children look through a destroyed c
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4 KEY MESSAGES Getting children int
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4 EDUCATION MATTERS IN INCREASING P
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4 One direct form of political part
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4 tertiary education formed the cor
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4 “ 35% of out-of-school children
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4 “ Refugee children and adolesce
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4 has expanded in recent years to b
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4 Lack of knowledge and education s
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Favelas in Rio de Janeiro, which fo
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5 KEY MESSAGES Education must be in
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5 FIGURE 5.1A: We live in an increa
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5 adequate knowledge of the local l
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5 it in urban economies is importan
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5 “ Education gaps are often wide
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5 In the United States, the 1954 Su
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5 BOX 5.5 Better urban planning can
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5 FIGURE 5.4A: In Medellín, Colomb
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5 130 CHAPTER 5 | PLACE: INCLUSIVE
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CHAPTER 6 Partnerships: enabling co
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6 Finance..........................
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6 strategic aid, non-traditional pa
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6 Even with substantial increases i
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6 FIGURE 6.4: Inequities in aid to
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6 instructive examples of national
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6 vertical integration is often con
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6 projects had satisfactory outcome
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6 funds; mobilized civil society an
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CHAPTER 7 Projections: forecasting
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7 Projecting global educational att
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7 TABLE 7.2: Projected attainment r
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7 TABLE 7.3: Percentage of countrie
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7 FIGURE 7.4: Universal upper secon
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CHAPTER 8 Education and sustainable
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8 Policy recommendations...........
Page 187 and 188: 8 Evidence gathered for this report
Page 189 and 190: 8 PROSPERITY In order to reduce pov
Page 191 and 192: 8 PARTNERSHIPS In order to ensure a
Page 193 and 194: CHAPTER 9 The challenges of monitor
Page 195 and 196: 9 Reaching consensus on the post-20
Page 197 and 198: 9 skills in information and communi
Page 199 and 200: 9 The Incheon Declaration requested
Page 201 and 202: 9 offer policy-makers sufficient in
Page 203 and 204: 10 CHAPTER 10 Sustainable Developme
Page 205 and 206: 10 FIGURE 10.1: More than 4 in 10 c
Page 207 and 208: 10 TABLE 10.2: Countries with the l
Page 209 and 210: 10 TABLE 10.3: Completion rates by
Page 211 and 212: 10 FIGURE 10.6: In almost one-quart
Page 213 and 214: 10 SYSTEMS LEARNERS SCHOOL AND CLAS
Page 215 and 216: 10 PROCESSES: CLASSROOM OBSERVATION
Page 217 and 218: 10 and classroom climate to policy-
Page 219 and 220: 10 FIGURE 10.9: In Latin America, a
Page 221 and 222: 10 BOX 10.3 A new module on learnin
Page 223 and 224: 10 assessment between 2007 and 2013
Page 225 and 226: 10 The second issue is that resourc
Page 227 and 228: 10 was administered For global moni
Page 231 and 232: 11 “ In 2014, 44% of children wer
Page 233 and 234: 11 ratio was 44%, while the percent
Page 235 and 236: 11 Because of the range and diversi
Page 237: 11 30 country reports in 3 areas, n
Page 241 and 242: 11 At the start of the process to d
Page 243 and 244: 11 FIGURE 11.5: About three-quarter
Page 247 and 248: 12 A typology of TVET recognizes th
Page 249 and 250: 12 are operated by the General Depa
Page 251 and 252: 12 Within its Systems Approach for
Page 253 and 254: 12 Administrative sources provide e
Page 255 and 256: 12 FIGURE 12.6: There are vast diff
Page 257 and 258: 12 But data in this area are still
Page 259 and 260: 12 University rankings Ever since f
Page 261 and 262: 12 for participation is job related
Page 263 and 264: 12 while in Latvia it declined unti
Page 265 and 266: 12 Since the 1990s, Mozambique has
Page 269 and 270: 13 in the social and political life
Page 271 and 272: 13 by a large task. The four themes
Page 273 and 274: 13 found that workers who scored be
Page 275 and 276: 13 A Standard & Poor’s module wit
Page 277 and 278: 13 CONCLUSION This chapter has revi
Page 281 and 282: 14 INEQUALITY MEASURES Measuring in
Page 283 and 284: 14 index equal to 0.86, and at the
Page 285 and 286: 14 The parity index must be interpr
Page 287 and 288: 14 BOX 14.2 The Inter-Agency Group
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14 for at least one of five reasons
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14 behaviour, play, development of
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14 trained in the bilingual curricu
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14 MIGRATION AND FORCED DISPLACEMEN
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14 There are important, sometimes i
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15 CHAPTER 15 Sustainable Developme
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15 Literacy is a basic cognitive sk
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15 BOX 15.1 Measuring participation
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15 FIGURE 15.3: In many countries,
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15 The assessment would need to hav
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15 may reduce the assessment’s va
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16 examines several initiatives tha
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16 COMPREHENSIVE SEXUALITY EDUCATIO
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16 ‘global thinking’, and half
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16 “ Close to 50% of secondary sc
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16 rights training in pre-service t
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16 community, including activities
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16 PISA included questions designed
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16 global population issues, which
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16 ENDNOTES 1. The third phase, 201
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17 “ In the least developed count
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17 entering and moving through the
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17 FIGURE 17.3: Electricity access
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17 it is the more common and often
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17 Violence and attacks against civ
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18 funds a programme managed by the
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18 Around 22,500 scholarships were
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18 About 70% of aid to higher educa
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19 FIGURE 19.1: The pupil/teacher r
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19 The coverage of both indicators
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19 educators were rarely experts in
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19 The survey also asked lower seco
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19 BOX 19.3 Upgrading ‘parents’
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19 As information on occupations is
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20 CHAPTER 20 20 Finance (selected
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20 Faced with similar challenges, t
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20 TABLE 20.1: Selected education f
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20 suggests the lower limit of the
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20 FIGURE 20.5: Information on even
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20 new module on equity and inclusi
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20 “ There is a 42% financing gap
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20 countries is that estimates excl
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20 middle income countries suggests
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21 CHAPTER 21 Education systems (se
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21 DIAGNOSTIC TOOLS FOR MONITORING
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21 While SABER has extended the evi
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21 LOOKING AHEAD In essence, polici
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22 CHAPTER 22 Education in the othe
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22 governments. It measures the num
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22 b. Under-5 mortality rate (death
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22 LIFELONG LEARNING AS A FACTOR CO
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23 CHAPTER 23 Priorities for monito
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23 facilitate well-informed and mea
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23 government and non-government sc
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23 not the main concern. Countries
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23 In light of the expanded scope o
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CHAPTER 24 Epilogue 385
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24 “ When the High-Level Politica
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24 ‘robust, voluntary, effective,
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Annex Statistical Tables Introducti
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5 Statistical tables 1 INTRODUCTION
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5 UIS encourages countries to make
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5 SDG 4 targets and related indicat
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5 Switzerland, The former Yugoslav
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TABLE 1 Background demographic stat
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TABLE 1 Part 1 (Continued) DEMOGRAP
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 1 Backgr
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 1 Part 2
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 2 SDG 4,
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 4 (Conti
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 10 SDG 4
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 10 (Cont
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 13 Part
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 13 Part
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 14 Domes
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477
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5 Aid tables INTRODUCTION 1 The dat
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TABLE 1 Bilateral and multilateral
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DIRECT AID TO POST-SECONDARY EDUCAT
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DIRECT AID TO SECONDARY EDUCATION D
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TABLE 4 ODA recipients (Continued)
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Glossary Adjusted net enrolment rat
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Net attendance rate (NAR). Number o
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Abbreviations AAPS AES AHELO AIDS A
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ILO IMF INES ISCED ISSA LAMP LEARNi
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Index This index covers the Introdu
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home learning environment 215 ICT f
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HIV education 292 NGOs 211 out-of-s
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see also traditional knowledge Cura
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education Education 2030 Framework
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Fiji TVET enrolment 223 violence in
Page 537 and 538:
ole of education 61, 78, 88, 165 gr
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educational attainment 75, 76, 105
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working poverty 57, 61 years of edu
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M Macao, China environmental educat
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perseverance 249 tertiary education
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primary education 314 secondary edu
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tertiary education 228, 229, 230, 2
Page 551 and 552:
women in politics 99 years of educa
Page 553 and 554:
small island developing States stud
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perseverance 249 special educationa
Page 557 and 558:
within country disparity 186, 231 w
Page 559 and 560:
attitudes to business 253 benefits
Page 561 and 562:
Introduction Carson, R. 1962. Silen
Page 563 and 564:
Das, P. K. 2010. Climate Change and
Page 565 and 566:
Reyhner, J. and Eder, J. 2015. Amer
Page 567 and 568:
Aghion, P., Veugelers, R. and Serre
Page 569 and 570:
Hanushek, E. A., Schwerdt, G., Wied
Page 571 and 572:
Pritchett, L. 2006. Does learning t
Page 573 and 574:
Bhurosy, T. and Jeewon, R. 2014. Ov
Page 575 and 576:
Gunewardena, D. 2015. Why aren’t
Page 577 and 578:
McBride, D. E. and Parry, J. A. 201
Page 579 and 580:
United Cities and Local Governments
Page 581 and 582:
Campbell, D. E. 2008. Voice in the
Page 583 and 584:
Mendenhall, M. and Chopra, N. 2016.
Page 585 and 586:
Allen, H. 2013. Africa’s First Fu
Page 587 and 588:
Hanson, D. 2013. Assessing the Harl
Page 589 and 590:
Sirin, S. R. and Rogers-Sirin, L. 2
Page 591 and 592:
Fehling, M., Nelson, B. D. and Venk
Page 593 and 594:
Prichard, W. 2010. Taxation and Sta
Page 595 and 596:
Lager, A. C. J. and Torssander, J.
Page 597 and 598:
Bennell, P. and Akyeampong, K. 2007
Page 599 and 600:
Crouch, L. 2015. Stumbling at the f
Page 601 and 602:
Facione, P. A. 1990. Critical Think
Page 603 and 604:
Hardin, B. J., Vardell, R. and de C
Page 605 and 606:
Inter-Agency Working Group on TVET
Page 607 and 608:
Marfo, K. 2011. Envisioning an Afri
Page 609 and 610:
___. 2009b. INES Network for the Co
Page 611 and 612:
Pew Research Center. 2015. Internet
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South Africa Government. 2013. Regu
Page 615 and 616:
UNDP. 2004. Human Development Repor
Page 617 and 618:
UNICEF and WHO. 2015. Progress on S
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Wortham, S. C. 2013. Common Charact
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