people and planet

3
that most behaviour changes are not sustained. A review
of 27 handwashing studies yielded no single instance of
definitive, long-term behavioural change (Vindigni et al.,
2011). Part of the problem has been providing resources
to sustain the behaviour. The state of Lagos, Nigeria,
included in its curriculum programmes promoting
hygiene knowledge and practices. They appeared to
improve student knowledge of the importance of such
practices, but primary and secondary school pupils were
found to lack adequate access to facilities to practise
their knowledge (Babalobi, 2013; Olukanni, 2013).
Education and sensitization campaigns can encourage the
adoption of cleaner fuel. Household energy programmes
involve awareness-raising, education and information
on inefficient and unhealthy cooking stoves and fuels.
Education and media campaigns are critical to ensure that
families understand the challenges and make the transition
(Halff et al., 2014). But there has been limited analysis on
whether improved cooking stoves translates into sustained
use over time or leads to full adoption of clean fuel (Lewis
and Pattanayak, 2012). Households may switch back to
traditional fuel due to factors such as fuel prices, reliability
and availability of fuel supply, and lifestyles and tastes
(Malla and Timilsina, 2014).
PROGRESS IN GENDER PARITY IN EDUCATION
FIGURE 3.13:
Women consistently earn less than men in OECD countries, even
though gender gaps in secondary attainment vary
Gender gaps in upper secondary attainment and formal employment
wages, circa 2014
Gender gap in upper secondary attainment,
25- to 64-year-olds (%)
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
0
Hungary
Norway
Source: OECD (2016b).
Portugal
Turkey
United States
More men have attained secondary
education than women
Estonia
Rep. of Korea
More women have attained
secondary education than men
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Gender wage gap in formal employment (%)
40
HAS NOT SYSTEMATICALLY TRANSLATED TO
GENDER EQUALITY
Just as knowledge acquisition does not always lead to
behavioural change, ensuring gender parity in school
does not necessarily result in longer-term equality
between the sexes. EFA and the MDGs promoted gender
parity, and in recent decades the overall numbers of
girls and women enrolling in all levels of education have
increased substantially (UNESCO, 2015). But there are
many indications that improving education access and
gender parity are not sufficient to empower women in
society. Ensuring greater equality in outcomes such as
literacy, numeracy, soft skills and entering work-related
training or higher education does not clearly translate
to greater equality in economic activity or employment
on equal terms with men. For instance, women’s
secondary attainment is now higher than men’s in many
OECD countries, yet the gender pay gap favouring men
remains substantial (Figure 3.13).
Female labour force participation is determined by many
policy, family and individual factors (Mincer, 1962), and
by levels of national economic development (Elborgh-
Woytek et al., 2013). Factors influencing women’s entry
into the market include wages, types of available jobs,
access to resources and bias in markets and institutions
(ILO, 2016c; World Bank, 2012).
Perhaps not surprisingly, then, the links between
women’s education and employment are not
straightforward (Figure 3.14). For instance, while girls’
education at all levels has been a significant factor
in rising labour market involvement in Latin America
and the Caribbean, only tertiary education has had a
significant employment effect in the Middle East and
North Africa (ILO, 2012).
Countries that have seen rapid growth in education
attainment among girls have not seen a commensurate
increase in decent work or changes in gendered social
norms. In India, the female employment rates have
decreased while female education increased, partly due
to how labour force participation is measured (Bhalla
and Kaur, 2011). Furthermore, while the levels of girls’
and women’s enrolment in all levels of education is
rising in the country, the female-to-male infant ratio is
simultaneously dropping, especially among more urban
populations, with gender-discriminatory views leading
to sex-selective abortion and gender-discriminatory
child-rearing practices (Jha et al., 2011; Patel, 2007). In
Sri Lanka, significant improvement in female enrolment
88
CHAPTER 3 | PEOPLE: INCLUSIVE SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT