people and planet

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outcomes in many countries, including Bangladesh,
India, Ethiopia, Kenya and South Sudan (UNESCO, 2015).
A comprehensive review of studies discussing pro-poor
electricity provision in 74 developing countries, mostly
from sub-Saharan Africa, and South and East Asia,
found consistent positive impacts of electrification
on education in terms of improvements in study time,
enrolment and years of schooling (Pueyo et al., 2013).
A variety of examples across world regions demonstrate
this effect. An analysis of the impact of rural hydroelectrification
between 1960 and 2000 in Brazil showed
large positive effects on literacy and enrolment
rates. Counties that went from no electricity to full
electrification saw drops of 8% in illiteracy and 21% in the
population with less than four years of education, and
a two-year increase in school completion (Lipscomb et
al., 2013). In rural Peru, the number of households with
access to electricity increased from 7.7% in 1993 to 70% in
2013, with much of the expansion happening after 2006.
Providing access to electricity led to children studying an
extra 93 minutes a day (Aguirre, 2014). In another study
on rural Peru’s electrification, conducted using household
survey panel data from 2007 to 2010, girls living in
districts that received electricity access were found more
likely to be enrolled in school, though increased access
to electricity did not lead to improved attendance and
was associated with a short-term reduction in learning
outcomes (Dasso et al., 2015).
The source of electricity does not seem to matter.
Children in households with solar home systems in
Bangladesh and community micro hydro in Nepal were
shown to spend more time studying than households
without any electricity (Banerjee et al., 2011; Samad
et al., 2013).
benefit women. In six states in India, analysis using 1996
survey data found that in households with electricity,
even poor women read more than women in wealthier
households without electricity (World Bank, 2002).
Furthermore, since electricity greatly increases access
to modern media, it may provide the opportunity to
gain and practice literacy and expose women to nontraditional
lifestyles, which can in turn affect women’s
standing and education (Köhlin et al., 2011).
Basic access to electricity alone is not sufficient to
improve education. Electricity access can also increase
opportunities for child employment or free time for other
pursuits, such as television watching and digital game
playing. Access to electrification in Honduras between 1992
and 2005 was found to reduce educational attainment
and attendance, and increase childhood employment.
To curb perverse effects of electricity on education,
awareness of them needs to be raised (Squires, 2015).
Other electricity-related challenges can
disproportionately affect the poor and their education
outcomes. Despite huge investments and the
development of grid infrastructure in Kenya, a lack
of mass connection and credit access has prevented
significant progress in electrification rates for the poor
(Lee et al., 2014). Quality of electrification is as important
as connection. Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the
Congo, reported a 90% access rate to electricity, but
received only 30 points out of 100 on a newer metric
that factored in reliability, quality, affordability, legality
and other aspects (International Energy Agency
and World Bank, 2015). Research is needed on the
relationship between access and quality of electrification
and education outcomes, as well as a more nuanced
definition of electricity access.
Electrification can improve indoor air quality and
reduce health challenges (Torero, 2014), which can in
turn positively affect education. In a causal analysis
of a grid extension and intensification programme in
El Salvador, household electrification was shown to
reduce indoor air pollution by reducing use of traditional
light sources. School-age children from households
that received discount vouchers increased their time
studying at home in less polluted environments, and saw
improvements in math skills (Barron and Torero, 2014).
DISCRIMINATORY INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIAL
STRUCTURES AFFECT EDUCATION OUTCOMES
The impact of social development on education is not
always positive. It is well known that social institutions
have gendered dimensions with implications for education
outcomes. This is the backdrop of much programming to
support girls’ education in recent decades, including raising
awareness of the need to educate girls and providing
stipends as encouragement (UNESCO, 2015).
While home electrification does not seem to have a
consistently greater impact on girls’ education, it can
have other education benefits which may especially
Among countries with relevant data, there was a negative
association between discriminatory legal institutions
and the gap between girls and boys in lower secondary
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CHAPTER 3 | PEOPLE: INCLUSIVE SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT