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12 Almost 19% of countries did not report this information in 2014, mostly because they reported no secondary enrolment data at all. A further 8% could not distinguish technical-vocational from general secondary enrolment, sometimes due to differences between national and international definitions. For example, national sources showed 19% of US secondary school graduates focusing on a technical-vocational course of study in 2009 (Dortch, 2014). As these studies may be offered as a single course or part of a career pathway, they do not map neatly onto the international definitions that separate general from vocational secondary school programmes. Hence UIS does not report technicalvocational enrolment data for the United States. In 2014, 11 million students were in post-secondary non-tertiary education programmes, which may last from six months to several years. In the 54 countries that identified the type of programme, 95% of students were enrolled in technical and vocational programmes. Notable cases where the share of enrolment in technicalvocational programmes was lower were China (38%), Egypt (18%) and France (51%). Many national systems offer technical and vocational programmes at the tertiary level, through either a shortcycle tertiary or a professional programme, but the UIS annual survey does not separate out this enrolment. Therefore, for the purpose of monitoring target 4.3, students enrolled in tertiary level technical and vocational programmes are not currently counted. Adding participation in workplace-based programmes The main challenge for a comprehensive measure of youth participation in technical-vocational programmes is how to capture the incidence of workplace-based education and training. One option is to ignore workplace programmes altogether. Combined participation rates from institution-based and workplace-based programmes would need to reflect differences in duration, instruction methods and, ultimately, the skills acquired. They would also need to account for the vast differences in labour market contexts between countries, which result in very different kinds of skills training. And yet, workplace-based education and training is a very important source of technical-vocational skill formation for youth. Ignoring it would considerably narrow the scope of monitoring the target. Such information can only be captured by using data from labour force, enterprise or household surveys. For this report, an analysis of 12 countries 1 drew upon administrative and survey data to explore the implications of a broader measure of participation in technical-vocational programmes. In keeping with the remit of the proposed indicator, the analysis pooled data for all youth aged 15 to 24. 2 In the case of institution-based programmes, about 7% of youth participated in such technical and vocational programmes in lower, upper or post-secondary nontertiary formal education, according to administrative data reported by UIS in the 12 countries. The estimate increased to 9% if ministry reports, agency databases and other sources of official information on institutionbased programme enrolments, whether from education ministries or other recognized providers, were added (Figure 12.2). The data were validated with comparisons to the reported national qualifications frameworks. Two factors account for the two percentage point difference. First, no data are reported in some cases. For example, no UIS data are available for technical-vocational participation in Jordan and Viet Nam, even though both countries have well-developed national programmes. In Viet Nam, 2.4 million students, or 14% of all youth, were enrolled in such programmes in 2010/11. The programmes FIGURE 12.2: A broader definition suggests wider youth access to technical-vocational programmes Youth participation rate in technical-vocational institutionand/or workplace-based programmes, selected countries, 2012 or most recent available year Youth participation rate (%) 75 50 25 0 Nepal Institution- and/or workplace-based, estimated Institution-based, estimated Institution-based, reported Armenia Uganda Egypt Jordan Kenya Source: GEM Report team analysis based on UIS data, official country reports and household surveys (World Bank Skills Toward Employment and Productivity, ILO School-to-Work Transition Survey, OECD Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies). Sri Lanka Viet Nam Colombia Rep. of Korea Sweden Netherlands 224 CHAPTER 12 | TARGET 4.3 – TECHNICAL, VOCATIONAL, TERTIARY AND ADULT EDUCATION
12 are operated by the General Department of Vocational Training in the Ministry of Labour, Invalids and Social Affairs, which coordinates provision (ADB, 2014). Second, enrolment in formal education programmes not supervised by education ministries may be under-reported. For example, Egypt reported to UIS in 2009/10 only the 1.5 million students enrolled in Ministry of Education technical-vocational programmes, but an additional 440,000 were enrolled in short and long programmes offered at public and private vocational training centres by 16 other ministries (Amin, 2014). Improved measurement of workplace-based programmes requires the use of comparable definitions in cross-country household surveys. It also calls for collecting more details on programme characteristics and retrospective information from individuals to better understand who benefits from multiple programmes. In recent years, one-third of all countries have participated in one of the major household surveys that report on some dimension of TVET. These surveys, which are necessary for monitoring equity, should coordinate their definitions and questionnaires. The ILO, responsible for monitoring global indicator 8.6.1, should lead in ensuring this coordination. Capturing the considerable amount of education and training that happens outside institutions requires addressing direct questions to youth. Capturing the However, the relevant questions are asked considerable amount of in very different ways education and training across surveys, as that happens outside they deal with various types of education institutions requires and training, including addressing direct apprenticeships, questions to youth internships, open or distance courses, organized on-the-job training, seminars and workshops. The surveys usually do not reveal the programmes’ duration and other characteristics. That said, on average, about 20% of youth appear to have participated in workplace-based programmes in the 12 countries (Figure 12.2). Sri Lanka took part in the World Bank Skills Toward Employment and Productivity survey. About 18% of youth had either been on a training course lasting at least 30 hours in the past 12 months or completed an apprenticeship. Uganda participated in the International Labour Organization (ILO) School-to-Work Transition Survey. It showed 11% of youth had completed an apprenticeship, internship or other kind of training. These sources provide snapshots of young people at specific times; they do not track the education and training of particular young people over time. More educated youth are more likely to participate in additional training than those with less education, which means they may be double-counted in technicalvocational programmes, especially in countries with high rates of provision. AFFORDABILITY The funding of TVET is shared by governments, employers and learners. Questions of affordability need to focus on the extent to which government policy helps address inequality in TVET access. Governments have a range of policy tools at their disposal, including grants, fee exemptions, loans, allowances and subsidies. However, the context differs widely between richer and poorer countries. In richer countries, the average student in technical and vocational education is more likely to come from a relatively disadvantaged background. For example, in Australia, the poor are almost four times as likely (22%) to enrol in vocational training as the wealthy (6%) (Lamb, 2011). Yet, fees are often charged. Australia introduced fees for publicly funded programmes in the 1990s. Student fees and charges accounted for about 5% of total institution revenues in 2014, ranging from 2% in the Northern Territories to 9% in Western Australia (NCVER, 2015a). For students in both public and private programmes, the Australian government introduced VET FEE-HELP, an income-contingent loan programme that assists eligible students attending certain courses with an approved provider by paying all or part of their tuition. In 2014, 87% of eligible students benefited, or 203,000 out of 3.9 million students at all levels (Australia DoET, 2015; NCVER, 2015b). The average loan was AUD 12,300 per student; poor students borrowed almost AUD 3,300 more than rich students (Australia DoET, 2014). The programme has not yet been evaluated. A qualitative evaluation of 35 loan programmes in European countries found that while they supported participation, they did not target the learners in greatest need. Many did not provide sufficient guidance and 2016 • GLOBAL EDUCATION MONITORING REPORT 225
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GLOBAL EDUCATION MONITORING REPORT
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This Report is an independent publi
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Foreword The 2016 Global Education
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Acknowledgements This report would
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The Global Education Monitoring Rep
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CHAPTER 6 • Partnerships: enablin
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List of figures, tables, and text b
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Figure 17.2: Most primary schools d
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HIGHLIGHTS Education for people and
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PLACE Urbanization puts strain on e
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Monitoring SDG 4 TARGET 4.1: Primar
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A young boy takes part in a refores
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I INTRODUCTION HIGHLIGHTS Transform
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I of environmental degradation and
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I BOX 0.2 THE SDGS WERE CREATED THR
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I (Box 0.4). These principles state
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I TABLE 0.1: How education is typic
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I The Incheon Declaration affirmed
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I The chapter documents the links b
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Here students in Indonesia learn ab
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1 KEY MESSAGES Living sustainably r
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1 other heat-trapping gases into th
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1 so that even countries with natur
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1 in responding to environmental ch
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1 petition, given more money or tak
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1 to these values are notions such
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1 Ethiopia, Kenya, Liberia, Mali, N
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1 “ If education progress is stal
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1 FIGURE 1.3: Poor children in the
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A man stands in a crop of cassava t
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2 KEY MESSAGES Education has a key
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2 on human welfare. Education helps
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2 BOX 2.1 Green industries demand p
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2 considerations and risk managemen
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2 developing regions (de Janvry and
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2 and supporting good governance (A
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2 FIGURE 2.1: Employment is being p
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2 growth does not necessarily mean
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2 jobs and decent earnings, even in
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2 disproportionately affected, acco
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2 Globally, earnings increase by ap
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2 with tertiary education, while th
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2 In many countries, green growth m
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Selina Akter, second year midwifery
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3 KEY MESSAGES Progress in health,
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3 health, water, sanitation, energy
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3 FIGURE 3.2: Women do more unpaid
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3 called for. Women’s empowerment
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3 FIGURE 3.5: There are large dispa
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3 FIGURE 3.7: Education marginaliza
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3 Tanzania revealed that many docto
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3 FIGURE 3.8: While being underweig
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3 FIGURE 3.10: In most countries, w
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3 2007, to 44 months. By 2007, birt
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3 outcomes in many countries, inclu
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3 that most behaviour changes are n
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3 they were twice as likely to hold
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3 Brazil, Indonesia, Rwanda and Sou
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Children look through a destroyed c
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4 KEY MESSAGES Getting children int
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4 EDUCATION MATTERS IN INCREASING P
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4 One direct form of political part
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4 tertiary education formed the cor
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4 “ 35% of out-of-school children
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4 “ Refugee children and adolesce
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4 has expanded in recent years to b
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4 Lack of knowledge and education s
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Favelas in Rio de Janeiro, which fo
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5 KEY MESSAGES Education must be in
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5 FIGURE 5.1A: We live in an increa
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5 adequate knowledge of the local l
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5 it in urban economies is importan
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5 “ Education gaps are often wide
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5 In the United States, the 1954 Su
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5 BOX 5.5 Better urban planning can
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5 FIGURE 5.4A: In Medellín, Colomb
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5 130 CHAPTER 5 | PLACE: INCLUSIVE
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CHAPTER 6 Partnerships: enabling co
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6 Finance..........................
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6 strategic aid, non-traditional pa
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6 Even with substantial increases i
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6 FIGURE 6.4: Inequities in aid to
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6 instructive examples of national
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6 vertical integration is often con
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6 projects had satisfactory outcome
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6 funds; mobilized civil society an
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CHAPTER 7 Projections: forecasting
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7 Projecting global educational att
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7 TABLE 7.2: Projected attainment r
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7 TABLE 7.3: Percentage of countrie
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7 FIGURE 7.4: Universal upper secon
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CHAPTER 8 Education and sustainable
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8 Policy recommendations...........
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8 Evidence gathered for this report
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8 PROSPERITY In order to reduce pov
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8 PARTNERSHIPS In order to ensure a
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CHAPTER 9 The challenges of monitor
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9 Reaching consensus on the post-20
Page 197 and 198: 9 skills in information and communi
Page 199 and 200: 9 The Incheon Declaration requested
Page 201 and 202: 9 offer policy-makers sufficient in
Page 203 and 204: 10 CHAPTER 10 Sustainable Developme
Page 205 and 206: 10 FIGURE 10.1: More than 4 in 10 c
Page 207 and 208: 10 TABLE 10.2: Countries with the l
Page 209 and 210: 10 TABLE 10.3: Completion rates by
Page 211 and 212: 10 FIGURE 10.6: In almost one-quart
Page 213 and 214: 10 SYSTEMS LEARNERS SCHOOL AND CLAS
Page 215 and 216: 10 PROCESSES: CLASSROOM OBSERVATION
Page 217 and 218: 10 and classroom climate to policy-
Page 219 and 220: 10 FIGURE 10.9: In Latin America, a
Page 221 and 222: 10 BOX 10.3 A new module on learnin
Page 223 and 224: 10 assessment between 2007 and 2013
Page 225 and 226: 10 The second issue is that resourc
Page 227 and 228: 10 was administered For global moni
Page 231 and 232: 11 “ In 2014, 44% of children wer
Page 233 and 234: 11 ratio was 44%, while the percent
Page 235 and 236: 11 Because of the range and diversi
Page 237 and 238: 11 30 country reports in 3 areas, n
Page 239 and 240: 11 BOX 11.1 Defining positive and s
Page 241 and 242: 11 At the start of the process to d
Page 243 and 244: 11 FIGURE 11.5: About three-quarter
Page 247: 12 A typology of TVET recognizes th
Page 251 and 252: 12 Within its Systems Approach for
Page 253 and 254: 12 Administrative sources provide e
Page 255 and 256: 12 FIGURE 12.6: There are vast diff
Page 257 and 258: 12 But data in this area are still
Page 259 and 260: 12 University rankings Ever since f
Page 261 and 262: 12 for participation is job related
Page 263 and 264: 12 while in Latvia it declined unti
Page 265 and 266: 12 Since the 1990s, Mozambique has
Page 269 and 270: 13 in the social and political life
Page 271 and 272: 13 by a large task. The four themes
Page 273 and 274: 13 found that workers who scored be
Page 275 and 276: 13 A Standard & Poor’s module wit
Page 277 and 278: 13 CONCLUSION This chapter has revi
Page 281 and 282: 14 INEQUALITY MEASURES Measuring in
Page 283 and 284: 14 index equal to 0.86, and at the
Page 285 and 286: 14 The parity index must be interpr
Page 287 and 288: 14 BOX 14.2 The Inter-Agency Group
Page 289 and 290: 14 for at least one of five reasons
Page 291 and 292: 14 behaviour, play, development of
Page 293 and 294: 14 trained in the bilingual curricu
Page 295 and 296: 14 MIGRATION AND FORCED DISPLACEMEN
Page 297 and 298: 14 There are important, sometimes i
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15 CHAPTER 15 Sustainable Developme
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15 Literacy is a basic cognitive sk
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15 BOX 15.1 Measuring participation
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15 FIGURE 15.3: In many countries,
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15 The assessment would need to hav
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15 may reduce the assessment’s va
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16 examines several initiatives tha
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16 COMPREHENSIVE SEXUALITY EDUCATIO
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16 ‘global thinking’, and half
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16 “ Close to 50% of secondary sc
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16 rights training in pre-service t
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16 community, including activities
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16 PISA included questions designed
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16 global population issues, which
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16 ENDNOTES 1. The third phase, 201
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17 “ In the least developed count
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17 entering and moving through the
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17 FIGURE 17.3: Electricity access
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17 it is the more common and often
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17 Violence and attacks against civ
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18 funds a programme managed by the
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18 Around 22,500 scholarships were
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18 About 70% of aid to higher educa
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19 FIGURE 19.1: The pupil/teacher r
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19 The coverage of both indicators
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19 educators were rarely experts in
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19 The survey also asked lower seco
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19 BOX 19.3 Upgrading ‘parents’
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19 As information on occupations is
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20 CHAPTER 20 20 Finance (selected
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20 Faced with similar challenges, t
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20 TABLE 20.1: Selected education f
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20 suggests the lower limit of the
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20 FIGURE 20.5: Information on even
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20 new module on equity and inclusi
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20 “ There is a 42% financing gap
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20 countries is that estimates excl
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20 middle income countries suggests
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21 CHAPTER 21 Education systems (se
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21 DIAGNOSTIC TOOLS FOR MONITORING
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21 While SABER has extended the evi
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21 LOOKING AHEAD In essence, polici
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22 CHAPTER 22 Education in the othe
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22 governments. It measures the num
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22 b. Under-5 mortality rate (death
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22 LIFELONG LEARNING AS A FACTOR CO
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23 CHAPTER 23 Priorities for monito
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23 facilitate well-informed and mea
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23 government and non-government sc
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23 not the main concern. Countries
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23 In light of the expanded scope o
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CHAPTER 24 Epilogue 385
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24 “ When the High-Level Politica
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24 ‘robust, voluntary, effective,
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Annex Statistical Tables Introducti
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5 Statistical tables 1 INTRODUCTION
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5 UIS encourages countries to make
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5 SDG 4 targets and related indicat
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5 Switzerland, The former Yugoslav
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TABLE 1 Background demographic stat
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TABLE 1 Part 1 (Continued) DEMOGRAP
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 1 Backgr
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 1 Part 2
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 2 SDG 4,
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 4 (Conti
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 10 SDG 4
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 10 (Cont
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 13 Part
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 13 Part
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 14 Domes
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Page 501 and 502:
477
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5 Aid tables INTRODUCTION 1 The dat
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TABLE 1 Bilateral and multilateral
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DIRECT AID TO POST-SECONDARY EDUCAT
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DIRECT AID TO SECONDARY EDUCATION D
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TABLE 4 ODA recipients (Continued)
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Glossary Adjusted net enrolment rat
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Net attendance rate (NAR). Number o
Page 521 and 522:
Abbreviations AAPS AES AHELO AIDS A
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ILO IMF INES ISCED ISSA LAMP LEARNi
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Index This index covers the Introdu
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home learning environment 215 ICT f
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HIV education 292 NGOs 211 out-of-s
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see also traditional knowledge Cura
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education Education 2030 Framework
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Fiji TVET enrolment 223 violence in
Page 537 and 538:
ole of education 61, 78, 88, 165 gr
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educational attainment 75, 76, 105
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working poverty 57, 61 years of edu
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M Macao, China environmental educat
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perseverance 249 tertiary education
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primary education 314 secondary edu
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tertiary education 228, 229, 230, 2
Page 551 and 552:
women in politics 99 years of educa
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small island developing States stud
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perseverance 249 special educationa
Page 557 and 558:
within country disparity 186, 231 w
Page 559 and 560:
attitudes to business 253 benefits
Page 561 and 562:
Introduction Carson, R. 1962. Silen
Page 563 and 564:
Das, P. K. 2010. Climate Change and
Page 565 and 566:
Reyhner, J. and Eder, J. 2015. Amer
Page 567 and 568:
Aghion, P., Veugelers, R. and Serre
Page 569 and 570:
Hanushek, E. A., Schwerdt, G., Wied
Page 571 and 572:
Pritchett, L. 2006. Does learning t
Page 573 and 574:
Bhurosy, T. and Jeewon, R. 2014. Ov
Page 575 and 576:
Gunewardena, D. 2015. Why aren’t
Page 577 and 578:
McBride, D. E. and Parry, J. A. 201
Page 579 and 580:
United Cities and Local Governments
Page 581 and 582:
Campbell, D. E. 2008. Voice in the
Page 583 and 584:
Mendenhall, M. and Chopra, N. 2016.
Page 585 and 586:
Allen, H. 2013. Africa’s First Fu
Page 587 and 588:
Hanson, D. 2013. Assessing the Harl
Page 589 and 590:
Sirin, S. R. and Rogers-Sirin, L. 2
Page 591 and 592:
Fehling, M., Nelson, B. D. and Venk
Page 593 and 594:
Prichard, W. 2010. Taxation and Sta
Page 595 and 596:
Lager, A. C. J. and Torssander, J.
Page 597 and 598:
Bennell, P. and Akyeampong, K. 2007
Page 599 and 600:
Crouch, L. 2015. Stumbling at the f
Page 601 and 602:
Facione, P. A. 1990. Critical Think
Page 603 and 604:
Hardin, B. J., Vardell, R. and de C
Page 605 and 606:
Inter-Agency Working Group on TVET
Page 607 and 608:
Marfo, K. 2011. Envisioning an Afri
Page 609 and 610:
___. 2009b. INES Network for the Co
Page 611 and 612:
Pew Research Center. 2015. Internet
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South Africa Government. 2013. Regu
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UNDP. 2004. Human Development Repor
Page 617 and 618:
UNICEF and WHO. 2015. Progress on S
Page 619 and 620:
Wortham, S. C. 2013. Common Charact
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