people and planet

3
and Bonnet, 2015). Gender disparity also affects overall
income inequality, not just employment prospects,
for women and girls; education and health disparity
are key drivers of overall income inequality in low and
middle income countries, and lower female labour force
participation is associated with higher income inequality
in higher income countries (Gonzales et al., 2015).
Tropical Medicine, 2010). Data from recent Demographic
and Health Surveys (DHS) show that in most countries
with data, women with secondary and tertiary education
are less likely to report having experienced physical
or sexual violence from their spouses (Figure 3.9), and
less likely to have undergone female genital mutilation
(Figure 3.10).
By imparting core skills such as literacy, education
facilitates women’s access to information about social
and legal rights and welfare services. Learning to read
and write can bring greater confidence and agency to
identify and challenge inequality, unjust traditions,
and norms and practices that perpetuate women’s
low status. For instance, low levels of education are a
significant risk factor in perpetuating and experiencing
intimate partner violence (Capaldi et al., 2012; United
Nations, 2015b; WHO and London School of Hygiene and
Gender-based violence is not just an issue in low income
countries. Over 23% of women were found to have
experienced physical or sexual intimate partner violence
in high income countries (WHO, 2013). In England (United
Kingdom), economically deprived and less educated
women were more likely to have experienced such
violence (Khalifeh et al., 2013).
Gender-based power relations can have complex links with
education. For instance, in Norway, women in relationships
FIGURE 3.9:
In most countries, women with secondary and higher levels of education are less likely to report having experienced
spousal violence
Percentage of ever-married women who have ever experienced physical or sexual violence committed by their husband or partner,
selected countries
65
Women who have ever been married who have experienced physical or
sexual violence committed by their husband or partner (%)
60 No education
55 Primary
50 Secondary
45
Higher
Average
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Comoros 2012
Burkina Faso 2010
Azerbaijan 2006
Philippines 2013
Nigeria 2013
Cambodia 2014
Gambia 2013
Tajikistan 2012
Dominican Rep. 2013
Haiti 2012
Honduras 2011
Togo 2013
Ghana 2008
Jordan 2012
Rep. Moldova 2005
Namibia 2013
Côte d’Ivoire 2011
S. Tome/Principe 2008
Nepal 2011
Malawi 2010
Mozambique 2011
Timor-Leste 2009
Mali 2012
Zimbabwe 2010
India 2005
Peru 2012
Colombia 2010
Liberia 2007
Kenya 2014
U. R. Tanzania 2010
Zambia 2013
Sierra Leone 2013
Cameroon 2011
Gabon 2012
Uganda 2011
D. R. Congo 2013
Bangladesh 2007
Rwanda 2010
Source: The DHS Program (2016).
2016 • GLOBAL EDUCATION MONITORING REPORT 81