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6 “ There is an annual finance gap of at least US$39 billion per year for providing quality education from pre-primary through to upper secondary education ” FIGURE 6.1: What type of integration and support are needed to achieve the sustainable development agenda? A conceptual framework for integrated planning Education Social protection Others Health Horizontal The education sector’s plans and actions reflect and respond to these relationships and conditions SECTORS International ACTORS DIMENSIONS OF INTEGRATION LEVELS National Regional Provincial Vertical State Private Civil society Multilateral Local Community Source: Based on Persaud (2016). FINANCING, HUMAN CAPACITIES, EFFECTIVE INSTITUTIONS, POLITICAL WILL sources of finance (public and private, domestic and international) and a long-term investment perspective will be needed (United Nations, 2015a). This is in contrast to the emphasis given to official development assistance (ODA) during the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) era (Fehling et al., 2013). In the education sector, the 2015 EFA Global Monitoring Report estimated the cost of ensuring that every child and adolescent in low and lower middle income countries accessed good quality education from the pre-primary to upper secondary level. The total annual cost is projected to increase from US$149 billion, based on 2012 estimates, to US$340 billion over the next 15 years. Even after improvements in domestic revenue mobilization are taken into account this leaves an annual US$39 billion financing gap (UNESCO, 2015b). To identify measures to address this funding gap, the high level International Commission on the Financing of Global Education Opportunities was announced at the Oslo Summit in July 2015 (Oslo Summit on Education for Development, 2015). Co-convened by the prime minister of Norway; the presidents of Chile, Indonesia and Malawi; and the Director-General of UNESCO, it is chaired by the UN Special Envoy for Global Education, with political leaders, policy-makers and researchers making up the members. Its purpose is to make a strong case for investment in education and provide recommendations for deploying resources in more effective, accountable and coordinated ways, especially in determining budget allocations. It will look at a wide range of financing sources, including increased domestic resource mobilization through more 134 CHAPTER 6 | PARTNERSHIPS: ENABLING CONDITIONS TO ACHIEVE SDG 4 AND THE OTHER SDGS
6 strategic aid, non-traditional partnerships, innovative finance and the private sector. The commission is expected to submit its report to the UN Secretary-General in September 2016. In view of its highly anticipated recommendations, which will also draw on an expert panel on education financing, this section focuses on a more select set of domestic and international financing issues. DOMESTIC RESOURCES Mobilizing more domestic resources will be critical for fulfilling the SDGs. Domestic resources funded 71% of public expenditure on MDG-related sectors in 66 low and lower middle income countries in 2014 (Development Finance International and Oxfam, 2015). For education, the share was 86% (Action Aid, 2016). The Education 2030 Framework for Action set two benchmarks on domestic financing for education: 4% to 6% of GDP and 15% to 20% of public expenditure. As the 2015 EFA Global Monitoring Report showed, poorer countries have made considerable efforts to prioritize education in their budgets but are more likely to miss spending targets because their overall budgets are small due to lack of domestic revenue (UNESCO, 2015a). The key question, then, is how to mobilize revenue. Raising more domestic resources In about half of all developing countries, tax ratios are below 15% of GDP, compared with 18% in emerging economies and 26% in advanced economies (Lagarde, 2016). Raising In about half of all the ratio in poorer developing countries, countries requires global tax ratios are below and domestic efforts. 15% of GDP Addressing tax evasion and avoidance is a global responsibility. Many challenges in tax collection faced by poorer countries are global in nature. The pervasiveness of secret offshore companies that hide wealth and the use of taxes as a competitive advantage in global competition for investment are among the significant factors limiting countries’ ability to raise domestic resources through taxation (Sachs and Schmidt-Traub, 2014). Tax incentives to attract multinational companies have often disadvantaged developing countries. Corporate income tax exemptions have led to estimated losses of US$139 billion a year in developing countries (Action Aid, 2013). Similarly, tax treaties often put poorer countries at a disadvantage; it is estimated that non-Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries lost US$1.6 billion in 2010 as a result of US treaty provisions (IMF, 2014). Recent estimates suggest that developing countries lose about US$100 billion annually in revenue from multinational tax avoidance through offshore investments (UNCTAD, 2015). Illicit financial flows, defined as illegal movements of money or capital between countries, are symptoms of governance failures, weak institutions and corruption (OECD, 2015f). Lower income countries lost over US$1 trillion in such flows in 2013 – over 10 times the amount of ODA received that year (Kar and Spanjers, 2015). Coordinated domestic and international action on tax incentives, treaties and harmful corporate decisions is needed for countries to get tax revenue they are owed (Action Aid, 2016). Education can influence taxpayer behaviour and increase compliance. While important taxation-related challenges are global, the fact that in many poorer countries taxes account for less than 15% of the national income also reflects on an inability to broaden the tax base and collect income, property and other progressive taxes (IMF, 2013a). Taxpayer behaviour is influenced by factors outside the tax system, such as how tax revenue is spent and the extent to which taxation mobilizes citizens’ political engagement (Fjeldstad and Heggstad, 2012; OECD, 2015a). Those who avoid paying taxes are often highly educated elites within countries and within multinational corporations. But it is also true that educational attainment and tax knowledge are positively associated with tax-related attitudes. Data from the 2005 World Values Survey on 55 countries indicate that more educated individuals had more positive attitudes towards paying taxes (OECD, 2013b). Data from the same survey in India over 1990–2006 showed that university education was associated with decreasing tolerance for tax evasion and bribery (Shafiq, 2015). Education also has an effect on tax-related behaviour. Income and sales taxes in 100 countries increased with educational attainment, which allowed the use of newer types of taxes that rely on widespread literacy (Kenny and Winer, 2006). An analysis of 123 countries 2016 • GLOBAL EDUCATION MONITORING REPORT 135
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GLOBAL EDUCATION MONITORING REPORT
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This Report is an independent publi
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Foreword The 2016 Global Education
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Acknowledgements This report would
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The Global Education Monitoring Rep
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CHAPTER 6 • Partnerships: enablin
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List of figures, tables, and text b
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Figure 17.2: Most primary schools d
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HIGHLIGHTS Education for people and
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PLACE Urbanization puts strain on e
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Monitoring SDG 4 TARGET 4.1: Primar
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A young boy takes part in a refores
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I INTRODUCTION HIGHLIGHTS Transform
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I of environmental degradation and
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I BOX 0.2 THE SDGS WERE CREATED THR
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I (Box 0.4). These principles state
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I TABLE 0.1: How education is typic
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I The Incheon Declaration affirmed
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I The chapter documents the links b
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Here students in Indonesia learn ab
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1 KEY MESSAGES Living sustainably r
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1 other heat-trapping gases into th
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1 so that even countries with natur
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1 in responding to environmental ch
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1 petition, given more money or tak
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1 to these values are notions such
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1 Ethiopia, Kenya, Liberia, Mali, N
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1 “ If education progress is stal
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1 FIGURE 1.3: Poor children in the
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A man stands in a crop of cassava t
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2 KEY MESSAGES Education has a key
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2 on human welfare. Education helps
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2 BOX 2.1 Green industries demand p
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2 considerations and risk managemen
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2 developing regions (de Janvry and
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2 and supporting good governance (A
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2 FIGURE 2.1: Employment is being p
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2 growth does not necessarily mean
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2 jobs and decent earnings, even in
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2 disproportionately affected, acco
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2 Globally, earnings increase by ap
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2 with tertiary education, while th
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2 In many countries, green growth m
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Selina Akter, second year midwifery
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3 KEY MESSAGES Progress in health,
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3 health, water, sanitation, energy
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3 FIGURE 3.2: Women do more unpaid
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3 called for. Women’s empowerment
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3 FIGURE 3.5: There are large dispa
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3 FIGURE 3.7: Education marginaliza
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3 Tanzania revealed that many docto
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3 FIGURE 3.8: While being underweig
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3 FIGURE 3.10: In most countries, w
Page 107 and 108: 3 2007, to 44 months. By 2007, birt
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Page 115 and 116: 3 Brazil, Indonesia, Rwanda and Sou
Page 117 and 118: Children look through a destroyed c
Page 119 and 120: 4 KEY MESSAGES Getting children int
Page 121 and 122: 4 EDUCATION MATTERS IN INCREASING P
Page 123 and 124: 4 One direct form of political part
Page 125 and 126: 4 tertiary education formed the cor
Page 127 and 128: 4 “ 35% of out-of-school children
Page 129 and 130: 4 “ Refugee children and adolesce
Page 131 and 132: 4 has expanded in recent years to b
Page 133 and 134: 4 Lack of knowledge and education s
Page 135 and 136: Favelas in Rio de Janeiro, which fo
Page 137 and 138: 5 KEY MESSAGES Education must be in
Page 139 and 140: 5 FIGURE 5.1A: We live in an increa
Page 141 and 142: 5 adequate knowledge of the local l
Page 143 and 144: 5 it in urban economies is importan
Page 145 and 146: 5 “ Education gaps are often wide
Page 147 and 148: 5 In the United States, the 1954 Su
Page 149 and 150: 5 BOX 5.5 Better urban planning can
Page 151 and 152: 5 FIGURE 5.4A: In Medellín, Colomb
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Page 155 and 156: CHAPTER 6 Partnerships: enabling co
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Page 161 and 162: 6 Even with substantial increases i
Page 163 and 164: 6 FIGURE 6.4: Inequities in aid to
Page 165 and 166: 6 instructive examples of national
Page 167 and 168: 6 vertical integration is often con
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Page 171 and 172: 6 funds; mobilized civil society an
Page 173 and 174: CHAPTER 7 Projections: forecasting
Page 175 and 176: 7 Projecting global educational att
Page 177 and 178: 7 TABLE 7.2: Projected attainment r
Page 179 and 180: 7 TABLE 7.3: Percentage of countrie
Page 181 and 182: 7 FIGURE 7.4: Universal upper secon
Page 183 and 184: CHAPTER 8 Education and sustainable
Page 185 and 186: 8 Policy recommendations...........
Page 187 and 188: 8 Evidence gathered for this report
Page 189 and 190: 8 PROSPERITY In order to reduce pov
Page 191 and 192: 8 PARTNERSHIPS In order to ensure a
Page 193 and 194: CHAPTER 9 The challenges of monitor
Page 195 and 196: 9 Reaching consensus on the post-20
Page 197 and 198: 9 skills in information and communi
Page 199 and 200: 9 The Incheon Declaration requested
Page 201 and 202: 9 offer policy-makers sufficient in
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Page 205 and 206: 10 FIGURE 10.1: More than 4 in 10 c
Page 207 and 208: 10 TABLE 10.2: Countries with the l
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10 TABLE 10.3: Completion rates by
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10 FIGURE 10.6: In almost one-quart
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10 SYSTEMS LEARNERS SCHOOL AND CLAS
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10 PROCESSES: CLASSROOM OBSERVATION
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10 and classroom climate to policy-
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10 FIGURE 10.9: In Latin America, a
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10 BOX 10.3 A new module on learnin
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10 assessment between 2007 and 2013
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10 The second issue is that resourc
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10 was administered For global moni
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11 CHAPTER 11 Sustainable Developme
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11 “ In 2014, 44% of children wer
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11 ratio was 44%, while the percent
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11 Because of the range and diversi
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11 30 country reports in 3 areas, n
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11 BOX 11.1 Defining positive and s
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11 At the start of the process to d
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11 FIGURE 11.5: About three-quarter
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12 A typology of TVET recognizes th
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12 are operated by the General Depa
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12 Within its Systems Approach for
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12 Administrative sources provide e
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12 FIGURE 12.6: There are vast diff
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12 But data in this area are still
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12 University rankings Ever since f
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12 for participation is job related
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12 while in Latvia it declined unti
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12 Since the 1990s, Mozambique has
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13 in the social and political life
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13 by a large task. The four themes
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13 found that workers who scored be
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13 A Standard & Poor’s module wit
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13 CONCLUSION This chapter has revi
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14 INEQUALITY MEASURES Measuring in
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14 index equal to 0.86, and at the
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14 The parity index must be interpr
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14 BOX 14.2 The Inter-Agency Group
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14 for at least one of five reasons
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14 behaviour, play, development of
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14 trained in the bilingual curricu
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14 MIGRATION AND FORCED DISPLACEMEN
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14 There are important, sometimes i
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15 Literacy is a basic cognitive sk
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15 BOX 15.1 Measuring participation
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15 FIGURE 15.3: In many countries,
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15 The assessment would need to hav
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15 may reduce the assessment’s va
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16 examines several initiatives tha
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16 COMPREHENSIVE SEXUALITY EDUCATIO
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16 ‘global thinking’, and half
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16 “ Close to 50% of secondary sc
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16 rights training in pre-service t
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16 community, including activities
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16 PISA included questions designed
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16 global population issues, which
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16 ENDNOTES 1. The third phase, 201
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17 “ In the least developed count
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17 entering and moving through the
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17 FIGURE 17.3: Electricity access
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17 it is the more common and often
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17 Violence and attacks against civ
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18 funds a programme managed by the
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18 Around 22,500 scholarships were
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18 About 70% of aid to higher educa
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19 FIGURE 19.1: The pupil/teacher r
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19 The coverage of both indicators
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19 educators were rarely experts in
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19 The survey also asked lower seco
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19 BOX 19.3 Upgrading ‘parents’
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19 As information on occupations is
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20 CHAPTER 20 20 Finance (selected
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20 Faced with similar challenges, t
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20 TABLE 20.1: Selected education f
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20 suggests the lower limit of the
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20 FIGURE 20.5: Information on even
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20 new module on equity and inclusi
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20 “ There is a 42% financing gap
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20 countries is that estimates excl
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20 middle income countries suggests
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21 CHAPTER 21 Education systems (se
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21 DIAGNOSTIC TOOLS FOR MONITORING
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21 While SABER has extended the evi
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21 LOOKING AHEAD In essence, polici
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22 CHAPTER 22 Education in the othe
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22 governments. It measures the num
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22 b. Under-5 mortality rate (death
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22 LIFELONG LEARNING AS A FACTOR CO
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23 CHAPTER 23 Priorities for monito
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23 facilitate well-informed and mea
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23 government and non-government sc
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23 not the main concern. Countries
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23 In light of the expanded scope o
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CHAPTER 24 Epilogue 385
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24 “ When the High-Level Politica
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24 ‘robust, voluntary, effective,
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Annex Statistical Tables Introducti
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5 Statistical tables 1 INTRODUCTION
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5 UIS encourages countries to make
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5 SDG 4 targets and related indicat
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5 Switzerland, The former Yugoslav
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TABLE 1 Background demographic stat
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TABLE 1 Part 1 (Continued) DEMOGRAP
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 1 Backgr
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 1 Part 2
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 2 SDG 4,
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 4 (Conti
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 10 SDG 4
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 10 (Cont
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 13 Part
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 13 Part
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 14 Domes
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477
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5 Aid tables INTRODUCTION 1 The dat
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TABLE 1 Bilateral and multilateral
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DIRECT AID TO POST-SECONDARY EDUCAT
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DIRECT AID TO SECONDARY EDUCATION D
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TABLE 4 ODA recipients (Continued)
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Glossary Adjusted net enrolment rat
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Net attendance rate (NAR). Number o
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Abbreviations AAPS AES AHELO AIDS A
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ILO IMF INES ISCED ISSA LAMP LEARNi
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Index This index covers the Introdu
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home learning environment 215 ICT f
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HIV education 292 NGOs 211 out-of-s
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see also traditional knowledge Cura
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education Education 2030 Framework
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Fiji TVET enrolment 223 violence in
Page 537 and 538:
ole of education 61, 78, 88, 165 gr
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educational attainment 75, 76, 105
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working poverty 57, 61 years of edu
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M Macao, China environmental educat
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perseverance 249 tertiary education
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primary education 314 secondary edu
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tertiary education 228, 229, 230, 2
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women in politics 99 years of educa
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small island developing States stud
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perseverance 249 special educationa
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within country disparity 186, 231 w
Page 559 and 560:
attitudes to business 253 benefits
Page 561 and 562:
Introduction Carson, R. 1962. Silen
Page 563 and 564:
Das, P. K. 2010. Climate Change and
Page 565 and 566:
Reyhner, J. and Eder, J. 2015. Amer
Page 567 and 568:
Aghion, P., Veugelers, R. and Serre
Page 569 and 570:
Hanushek, E. A., Schwerdt, G., Wied
Page 571 and 572:
Pritchett, L. 2006. Does learning t
Page 573 and 574:
Bhurosy, T. and Jeewon, R. 2014. Ov
Page 575 and 576:
Gunewardena, D. 2015. Why aren’t
Page 577 and 578:
McBride, D. E. and Parry, J. A. 201
Page 579 and 580:
United Cities and Local Governments
Page 581 and 582:
Campbell, D. E. 2008. Voice in the
Page 583 and 584:
Mendenhall, M. and Chopra, N. 2016.
Page 585 and 586:
Allen, H. 2013. Africa’s First Fu
Page 587 and 588:
Hanson, D. 2013. Assessing the Harl
Page 589 and 590:
Sirin, S. R. and Rogers-Sirin, L. 2
Page 591 and 592:
Fehling, M., Nelson, B. D. and Venk
Page 593 and 594:
Prichard, W. 2010. Taxation and Sta
Page 595 and 596:
Lager, A. C. J. and Torssander, J.
Page 597 and 598:
Bennell, P. and Akyeampong, K. 2007
Page 599 and 600:
Crouch, L. 2015. Stumbling at the f
Page 601 and 602:
Facione, P. A. 1990. Critical Think
Page 603 and 604:
Hardin, B. J., Vardell, R. and de C
Page 605 and 606:
Inter-Agency Working Group on TVET
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Marfo, K. 2011. Envisioning an Afri
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___. 2009b. INES Network for the Co
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Pew Research Center. 2015. Internet
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South Africa Government. 2013. Regu
Page 615 and 616:
UNDP. 2004. Human Development Repor
Page 617 and 618:
UNICEF and WHO. 2015. Progress on S
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Wortham, S. C. 2013. Common Charact
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