The Complete Book of Spaceflight: From Apollo 1 to Zero Gravity

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Stardust An artist’s conception of the Stardust probe encountering comet Wild-2. NASA Starfish 415
416 John Paul Stapp (1910–1999) An American pioneer of aerospace medicine, famous for his extreme rocket-sled experiments. Stapp was born in Bahia, Brazil, 1910, the son of Southern Baptist missionaries. At age 12, he moved back to the United States with his family and later started college in Texas with the idea of becoming a writer. During Christmas vacation 1928, he witnessed a tragedy that changed his life. While he was visiting relatives, his baby cousin crawled into a fireplace and was badly burned. For three days before the child died, Stapp helped nurse the child; afterward he determined to become a doctor. Fifteen years later, having earned degrees in zoology and biophysics, he entered the University of Minnesota medical school to pursue his dream. When he graduated, he interned at St. Mary’s Hospital, Duluth, before enlisting in the Army Medical Corps during World War II. In 1946, Stapp joined the aeromedical laboratory at Wright Field and was serving as flight surgeon to Chuck Yeager when he broke the sound barrier. Stapp became convinced that a significant pattern lay behind the way some airmen died and others survived seemingly equally violent crashes. To solve the mystery, he used a high-speed rocket sled at Morocco Air Base. Stapp planned a series of tests on humans and set out to develop a harness to hold them safely to the rocket-powered sled, known as the “Gee Whiz.” First, he used a dummy named “Oscar Eight-Ball” to perfect the harness. Finally, after 32 sled runs, he was ready to try it out on a human guinea pig—himself. He was strapped into the sled facing rearward, refusing anesthetic because he wanted to study his reactions first-hand. Accelerated almost instantly to 145 km/hr (90 mph), Stapp was then crushed against the seat back as the sled ground to an abrupt halt. He suffered only a few sore muscles. Within a year, Stapp had made sled runs at up to 240 km/hr (150 mph), stopping in as little as 5.8 m (19 ft). He experienced up to 35 times the force of gravity (35g) and proved that the human body could withstand such stress, although in the process he suffered headaches, concussions, a fractured rib and wrist, and a hemorrhaged retina. When Stapp’s commanding officer learned he’d been his own test subject, he ordered the experiments to stop, fearing he’d miss out on promotion if Stapp were killed. However, Stapp secretly continued the tests, using chimpanzees, and found that when strapped in correctly they survived forces many times those experienced in most plane crashes. From this, he concluded that crash survival doesn’t depend on a body’s ability to withstand the high forces involved, but rather on its ability to withstand the mangling effects of the vehicle. To back up this idea, Stapp again unofficially began tests on humans—putting himself first in the firing line. Over the next four years, he lost fillings, cracked more ribs, and broke his wrist again. Yet, despite these daredevil exploits, Stapp was known as a quiet, philosophical man who loved classical music. He refused to marry until his test days were over. In 1949, Stapp was involved in the birth of Murphy’s Law. Stapp’s harness held 16 sensors to measure the g-force on different parts of the body. There were exactly two ways each sensor could be installed, and it fell upon a certain Captain Murphy to make the connections. Before a run in which Stapp was badly shaken up, Murphy managed to wire up each sensor the wrong way, with the result that when Stapp staggered off the rocket sled with bloodshot eyes and bleeding sores, all the sensors read zero. Known for his razor-sharp wit, Stapp quipped: “If there are two or more ways to do something and one of those results in a catastrophe, then someone will do it that way.” The advent of supersonic flight and the need to bail out at very high speed demanded more extreme experiments. Transferred to head the aeromedical field lab at Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico, Stapp built a much faster sled, called “Sonic Wind No. 1.” Again, he began his studies using dummies, but in March 1954, he put himself forward as the subject. In his first ride on the new sled, Stapp reached 677 km/hr (421 mph)—a new land speed record. On December 10, he took the sled chair for his final and most extreme ride. His wrists were tied together in front of him, because flapping limbs would be torn away in the ferocious air stream. His major concern was that the rapid deceleration might blind him. Earlier he had “practiced dressing and undressing with the lights out so if I was blinded I wouldn’t be helpless.” At the end of the countdown, Stapp was shot to 1,002 km/hr (623 mph) in 5 seconds and back to rest in just over a second. Subjected to 40g, he temporarily blacked out, and his eyeballs
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The Complete Book of Spaceflight Fr
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Contents Acknowledgments v Introduc
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It is astonishing to think that the
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4 How to Use This Book Energy 1 jou
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6 Able passage through a dusty medi
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8 additive additive A substance add
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10 aerobraking was one of two rocke
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12 aerospace medicine aerospace med
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14 AIRS (Atmospheric Infrared Sound
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16 ALOS (Advanced Land Observing Sa
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18 ammonium perchlorate (NH 4ClO 4)
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20 aniline (C 6H 5NH 2) aniline (C
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22 antiparticle efficient space pro
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24 whose main task was guidance and
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26 LUNAR MODULE FACTS Height: 6.7 m
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28 intended as simply an Earth-orbi
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30 lunar environment. Conrad inadve
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32 CSM; it transmitted data back to
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34 Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP)
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36 Ariane orbit on the 11th launch
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38 Ariel Ariel A series of six Brit
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40 Artemis Project ESA devised a fo
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42 asteroid missions asteroid missi
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44 America’s first intercontinent
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46 atmosphere first time in the Atl
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48 Avdeyev, Sergei Avdeyev, Sergei
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50 ballistic missile ballistic miss
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52 Belyayev, Pavel Ivanovich with t
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54 biopak their companions who had
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56 Black Brant in June 1969, a seco
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58 boat-tail deliver a two-ton nucl
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60 boost magazine series on spacefl
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62 BS- (Broadcasting Satellite) to
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64 Buran Program was inaugurated wi
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66 canted nozzle astronaut John You
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68 carrier and as CAPCOM (Capsule C
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70 cast propellant decelerate. Then
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72 Cernan, Eugene Andrew broken bit
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Challenger disaster Following the e
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76 chemical fuel Chelomei turned hi
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78 circular velocity circular veloc
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80 Cluster Cluster An ESA (European
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82 Colombo, Giuseppe “Bepi” Col
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84 Aspacecraft in Earth orbit that
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86 companion body companion body A
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88 Copernicus Observatory longest M
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90 cosmic rays was the responsibili
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92 Crocco, Gaetano Arturo crawler-t
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94 Cunningham, R. Walter cryobot An
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Daedalus, Project One of the first
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98 Dawn preceded, in 2006, by SMART
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100 Deep Space Network (DSN) Deep S
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102 Afamily of launch vehicles deri
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104 (GEMs) for improved performance
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106 de-orbit burn de-orbit burn (co
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108 Dnepr Force base by a Thor Burn
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110 downlink Douglas Skyrocket The
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112 Durant Frederick Clark, III (19
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Early Bird (communications satellit
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116 Edwards Air Force Base Echo A t
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118 Einstein Observatory other idea
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120 electrostatic propulsion electr
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122 energy density accelerate an ob
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124 Eole Envisat Envisat being prep
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126 escape energy Organisation). ES
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128 ETS (Engineering Test Satellite
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130 Evans, Ronald E. used to study
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132 Explorer Launch Explorer Spacec
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134 explosive bolt explosive bolt A
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136 FAIR (Filled-Aperture Infrared
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138 fission, nuclear fission, nucle
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140 flux it also supported AFSATCOM
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142 frequency coordination held) re
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144 FTL (Project Vela) and then as
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146 GAIA (Global Astrometric Interf
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148 gamma rays instruments and the
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150 GEC (Global Electrodynamics Con
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152 Attitude Maneuvering System (OA
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154 down relative to the target bec
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156 Gemini 9/“Angry Alligator”
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158 Genesis launch failed and the v
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160 Geotail Geotail A joint ISAS (J
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162 Glavcosmos John Glenn Glenn don
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164 Glennan, T(homas) Keith istrato
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166 Robert Hutchings Goddard (1882-
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168 Gonets Gonets A Russian messagi
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170 gravitational constant (G) Adva
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172 Griffith, George shot out of a
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174 guidance, midcourse guidance, m
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H series (Japanese launch vehicles)
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178 Hale, William Edward Hale The B
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180 Haruka flight. By the end of 19
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182 Helios (reconnaissance satellit
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184 high mass fraction two Soft X-r
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186 HOPE (H-2 Orbital Plane) instru
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188 human factors NGST (Next Genera
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190 hypoxia hypoxia Oxygen deficien
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192 IDCSP (Initial Defense Communic
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194 inertia inertia The property of
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196 Intelsat (International Telecom
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198 Intercosmos Intercosmos Interna
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200 International Space Station An
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202 The ISS Takes Shape The STS-88
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204 interplanetary magnetic field C
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206 interstellar space problem by h
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208 IRBM (Intermediate Range Ballis
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210 ISAS (Institute of Space and As
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212 IUE (International Ultraviolet
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214 JAS (Japanese Amateur Satellite
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216 Joule Joule An X-ray observator
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218 Jupiter A floodlit Jupiter C is
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220 Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Kenn
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222 Kiwi which he broke the sound b
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224 Kourou In the end, Korolev was
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226 Kummersdorf astronomer Gerard P
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L series (Japanese launch vehicles)
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230 Lagrangian orbit carries an arr
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232 laser propulsion Houston. Langl
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234 Lebedev, Valentin V. LDEF Havin
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236 leveled thrust program in space
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238 LiPS (Living Plume Shield) LiPS
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240 Aseries of Chinese launch vehic
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242 Lovell, James Arthur, Jr. Lovel
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244 Aseries of Soviet Moon probes,
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246 On January 15, 1973, Luna 21 to
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248 Lunar Prospector Lunar Prospect
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M series (Japanese launch vehicles)
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252 MACSAT (Multiple Access Communi
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254 Magnetospheric Multiscale (MMS)
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256 MAP (Microwave Anisotropy Probe
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258 at risk to themselves, started
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260 An early series of Soviet space
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262 Mars Express Mars Express (cont
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264 Mars Pathfinder (MPF) help dete
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266 Martin Marietta United States.
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268 Maul, Alfred MASTIF The MASTIF
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270 MECO (main engine cutoff) recor
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272 the suborbital journey and safe
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274 a drugstore. Glenn also had the
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276 Mercury-Atlas pilots to take th
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278 meteor deflection screen indica
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280 Milstar (Military Strategic and
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282 Alarge and long-lived Russian s
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284 modulation modulation The proce
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286 Mu long-wave infrared. It also
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288 Musudan together. Two of the co
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290 The Soviet counterpart to the S
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292 NASA Institute for Advanced Con
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294 NEAR-Shoemaker (Near-Earth Aste
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296 Newell, Homer E. Newell, Homer
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298 Nova (rocket) Eight of the spac
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300 nuclear propulsion propulsion)
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302 occultation Hermann Oberth Ober
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304 OKB-1 OKB-1 The classified Sovi
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306 ONERA (Office National d’Étu
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308 Orion, Project first century, t
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310 thin surface layer. So brief wa
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312 Osumi OSO (Orbiting Solar Obser
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314 Palapa Paine, Thomas O. Thomas
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316 parking orbit rifled barrel wit
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318 Pegasus (spacecraft) Pegasus (l
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320 Pickering, William Hayward Pick
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322 Early Pioneers Pioneer 3 being
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324 Planet Imager (PI) Planet Image
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326 POES (Polar Operational Environ
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328 pressure suit pressure suit See
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330 Project Daedalus throughout the
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332 PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Ve
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“R” series of Russian missiles
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336 radiation protection in space s
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338 radiometer such as plutonium-23
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340 ranging ranging Techniques for
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342 reentry vehicle materials and t
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344 remaining mass remaining mass T
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346 Rhyolite Rhyolite A series of U
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348 rocket sled rocket sled A sled
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350 Rosetta Rosetta ESA (European S
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352 Rudolph, Arthur L. Rudolph, Art
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354 Soviet Launches Related to Mann
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Sagan, Carl Edward (1934-1996) A pr
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358 An early series of Soviet space
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360 Sander, Friedrich Wilhelm had b
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362 satellite constellation satelli
Page 367 and 368: 364 A 6.5-m ring fixed to the top o
Page 369 and 370: 366 Schirra, Walter (“Wally”) M
Page 371 and 372: 368 Schweikart, Russell (“Rusty
Page 373 and 374: 370 Seamans, Robert C., Jr. vehicle
Page 375 and 376: 372 SERT (Space Electric Rocket Tes
Page 377 and 378: 374 Shah-Nama by the Space Shuttle
Page 379 and 380: 376 SIM (Space Interferometry Missi
Page 381 and 382: 378 An experimental American space
Page 383 and 384: 380 by the Skylab 2 crew. Two furth
Page 385 and 386: 382 SMEX (Small Explorer) Space Fli
Page 387 and 388: 384 Sojourner case,anellipticalorbi
Page 389 and 390: 386 sonic speed sonic speed The spe
Page 391 and 392: 388 Soyuz spacecraft ESA astronaut
Page 393 and 394: 390 space drive propellants and str
Page 395 and 396: 392 space motion sickness (SMS) the
Page 397 and 398: 394 space sail space sail A device
Page 399 and 400: 396 The core vehicle in NASA’s sp
Page 401 and 402: 398 1986, it was decided to build a
Page 403 and 404: 400 Orbiter Jerry Ross, anchored to
Page 405 and 406: 402 Space Studies Board space stati
Page 407 and 408: 404 Spacehab activities for the dis
Page 409 and 410: 406 An airtight fabric suit with fl
Page 411 and 412: 408 spacewalk package. Next, the as
Page 413 and 414: 410 speed of sound speed of sound T
Page 415 and 416: 412 Squanto Terror Sputnik 2 The se
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Page 421 and 422: 418 Starlight Starlight A NASA miss
Page 423 and 424: 420 Stewart Committee Stennis Space
Page 425 and 426: 422 stratosphere stratosphere The l
Page 427 and 428: 424 surveillance satellites milliwa
Page 429 and 430: 426 sweat cooling Launch Date: Dece
Page 431 and 432: tachyon A hypothetical particle tha
Page 433 and 434: 430 Tenma Telstar Telstar 1, the fi
Page 435 and 436: 432 terrestrial satellite Terrestri
Page 437 and 438: 434 Thor similar to those on the At
Page 439 and 440: 436 thrust chamber At first glance,
Page 441 and 442: 438 Tipu Sultan “Ralph” and “
Page 443 and 444: 440 Alarge intercontinental ballist
Page 445 and 446: 442 Titov, Gherman Stepanovich Tito
Page 447 and 448: 444 TOS (TIROS Operational System)
Page 449 and 450: 446 troposphere TRMM (Tropical Rain
Page 451 and 452: 448 Konstantin Eduardovitch Tsiolko
Page 453 and 454: 450 Tucker, George three-stage vehi
Page 455 and 456: UARS (Upper Atmosphere Research Sat
Page 457 and 458: 454 umbilical connections for measu
Page 459 and 460: “V” weapons See article, pages
Page 461 and 462: 458 “V” weapons A captured V-2
Page 463 and 464: 460 Vanguard fired from here in Dec
Page 465 and 466: 462 Vega 1 and 2 seven operational
Page 467 and 468: 464 velocity Vehicle Assembly Build
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466 Viking (launch vehicle) Chronol
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468 as data relays for more than an
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470 visible light visible light Ele
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472 Von Kármán, Theodore liquid-f
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474 The first series of manned Russ
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476 Two identical spacecraft sent t
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WAC Corporal A small liquid-propell
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480 weight these findings to variou
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482 White Sands Missile Range Edwar
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484 wind tunnel orbit, Wind provide
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486 Ahypothetical “tunnel” conn
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X planes U.S. experimental aircraft
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490 X-33 configuration and renamed
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Yangel, Mikhail K. (1911-1971) One
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Zarya See International Space Stati
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496 Aseries of Soviet probes (“zo
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Boldfaced terms indicate entry head
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500 Acronyms and Abbreviations GEO
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502 Acronyms and Abbreviations POES
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1. Abbot, Alison. “Rubbia propose
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506 References 70. “Cyrano de Ber
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508 References 148. Harrison, Alber
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510 References 223. O’Neill, G. K
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512 References 300. Verne, Jules. A
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514 Web Sites British Interplanetar
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516 Web Sites ICO http://www.ico.co
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518 Web Sites Seawinds http://eosps
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Advanced propulsion systems and rel
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illicit cargo ingress Lunar Landing
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Gonets Gorizont ICO IDCSP (Initial
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launch pad launch support and hold-
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Microgravity and technology experim
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special theory of relativity specif
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Rocket science and technology after
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LDEF (Long Duration Exposure Facili
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hydrobot microsat minisat nanosat n
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The Complete Book of Spaceflight: From Apollo 1 to Zero Gravity

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