The Complete Book of Spaceflight: From Apollo 1 to Zero Gravity

462 Vega 1 and 2
seven operational launches (called SLV for “space
launch vehicle”) were successful—a failure rate unsurpassed
by any other American launch vehicle.
Adapted from the U.S. Navy’s Viking and Aerobee
research rockets, Vanguard was designed to fulfill the
Eisenhower Administration’s goal of placing a small
scientific satellite in orbit during the International
Geophysical Year (IGY). Its development stemmed
from a 1955 study to determine which vehicle would
be most suitable for launching the first American
satellite. Among the proposals rejected were Project
Orbiter, a Redstone-based plan put forward by the
Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA). At the height
of the Cold War, Eisenhower was sensitive about
allowing the military to launch the first American
satellite. Although the Vanguard program was based
on the Navy Viking, it was proposed under civilian
management and so was selected ahead of its rivals. At
least six Vanguard rockets had been scheduled for test
launches prior to what would have been the first
American attempt to loft a satellite. Since the IGY ran
from July 1, 1957, through December 31, 1958, it was
thought there would be plenty of time for the Vanguard
to prove itself before attempting to reach orbit.
However, technical problems quickly surfaced, and
the first test launch was delayed until December 8,
1956. A second test took place on May 1, 1957, but
before there could be a third, the Soviet Union shook
the world with their launch of Sputnik 1 on October
4, 1957. To counter this unexpected Soviet coup, and
that of Sputnik 2 in November 1957, a bold decision
was made to go for a satellite launch aboard the next
available Vanguard (TV-3). However, TV-3 exploded
on its launch pad before the eyes of the world on
December 6, 1957. This public debacle cleared the
way for ABMA to attempt, and successfully achieve,
the launch of America’s first satellite, Explorer 1, on
January 31, 1958. Despite the highly publicized Vanguard
failure, the program didn’t immediately end. A
second, but less spectacular, Vanguard failure
occurred during a follow-up satellite launch attempt
on February 5, 1958. But then came success. The next
Vanguard rocket carried the Vanguard 1 satellite into
orbit on March 17, 1958. The next four attempts to
reach orbit failed, but Vanguard 2 was successfully
launched on February 17, 1959. After two more failures,
the last launch of a Vanguard rocket ended in triumph,
placing Vanguard 3 in orbit on September 18,
1959. Though the program was then quietly wound
up, Vanguard technology was successfully applied to
other programs. The Vanguard’s upper stages formed
the basis for upper stage configurations used on Atlas-
Able, Thor-Able, and Scout rockets, and even found
their way into the Apollo program. A modified Vanguard
upper stage served as the second stage of the
Atlas-Antares, a rocket used to test various Apollo
reentry vehicle designs. (See table, “Vanguard Launch
Vehicle Specifications.”)
Length: 21.9 m
Diameter: 1.1 m
Vanguard Launch Vehicle Specifications
First Stage Second Stage Third Stage
Manufacturer GE (Viking) Aerojet Altair
Fuel LOX/kerosene IWFNA/UDMH Solid
Thrust (N) 124,000 33,000 13,800
Vega Missions
Spacecraft Launch Date Notes
Vega 1 Dec. 15, 1984 Ejected Venus lander Jun. 10, 1985; Halley flyby on Mar. 6, 1986
Vega 2 Dec. 21, 1984 Ejected Venus lander Jun. 14, 1985; Halley flyby on Mar. 9, 1986