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carbamates, and especially pyrethroids. The fungicides are primarily copper based. In the west, both groups are used on coffee and vegetable crops to conserve seeds and food products. In the south, they are used only on cocoa crops and, in the central province, by vegetable and cocoa growers. The insecticides used in homes have a pyrethroid base. In the west, centre, and south, 70%, 62%, and 76%, respectively, of people surveyed used household insecticides. Unlike northern Cameroon, raising livestock and small animals is not common in the three regions under study. However, to kill poultry ectoparasites, dog ticks, human chiggers, and head lice, 29%, 29%, and 18% of the people interviewed in the west, centre, and south, respectively, used pesticides of the organochloride, organophosphate, and pyrethroid groups. Insecticides were used against flying insects (tse-tse flies, rnosquitos, blackflies, etc), crawling insects (cockroaches), and other household pests by 44%, 43%, and 17% of respondents in the west, centre, and south, respectively. People used organochloride, organophosphorous, and especially pyrethroid insecticides as well as rodenticides. Timing and duration of treatment were usually not according to recommendations, because the insecticides were received late or because of seasonal variations in rainfall patterns. A high percentage (86%, 62%, and 83% of respondents in the west, centre, and south, respectively) admitted that they did not allow for any time lag, or no more than 1 week, between the last application of insecticide and the harvest, increasing the likelihood of pesticide residues in harvested food. In antifungal treatments administered by users, 100%, 70%, and 80% of respondents in the west, centre, and south, respectively, increased the dosage beyond that indicated on the product package. Recommended dosages were respected when insecticide treatments were applied by employees of government agencies or state-owned enterprises. The number of treatments was, however, not usually respected in applications to vegetable and cash crops in the three provinces; they may be increased or decreased, depending on the user. Application methods included spraying by users or thermonebulization or misting by the staff in agricultural stations. None of the users had adequate protection, even though some reported that they were aware of the risks they incurred in handling pesticides. Many of them drank milk after applying pesticides, but were unaware that this practice has been discredited. In many cases, pesticide containers were not properly disposed of - 66%, 76%, and 75% of users in the west, centre, and south, respectively, discarded their empty containers in water, on the plantation, or in the bush. In rare instances, drums and barrels that had contained pesticides were reused for other purposes or sold. 116
Conclusion The practices followed by pesticide users in the regions studied are not adequate to minimize harmful effects on humans, animals, plants, and the environment. The use of pesticides under prevailing conditions constitutes a danger to the entire ecological chain. In general, the most commonly used pesticides in Cameroon are the organochioride insecticides, organophosphorous insecticides, carbamates, and, above all, pyrethroids. Copper-based fungicides are also widely used. Herbicides are not as widely used, but they are used in vegetable and cash-crop production, in the livestock- and humanhealth sectors, and - especially in the western region - the conservation of food stocks. Further study of the use of pesticides and their effects on human health in Cameroon is recommended. Acknowledgment - This research was supported by a grant from the International Development Research Centre, Canada. 117
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Impact of pesticide use on health i
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IMPACT OF PESTICIDE USE ON HEALTH I
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©International Development Researc
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Contents Acknowledgments viii Forew
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Control of disease vectors: a curre
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Foreword From their first appearanc
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PART! EPIDEMIOLOGY OF PESTICIDE POI
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Although pesticides are used both i
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Table 1. Introduction of pesticides
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problem. The International Developm
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impact of pesticides on Canadian wi
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investigated further. For example,
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Conclusions The subject of this vol
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Jusoh Mamat, M.; Anas, A.N.; Heong,
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Health-risk assessment of pesticide
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especially in the absence of comple
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depends largely on external factors
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Specific situations may require spe
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that the best possible work is done
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doses (chronic poisoning) or delaye
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Table 1. Poisoning incidents in fou
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Pesticide research for public healt
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Current pest control practices in T
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800- 400- 200 - 1980 1981 1982 1983
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designed 30-40 years ago (Jusoh Mam
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and tore easily. One investigation
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education, mass-communication tools
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Increase and improve training activ
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Castaneda, C.P. 1988. Pesticide poi
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Ooi, A.C.P.; Heong, K.L.; Lim, B.K.
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Investigations into acute pyrethroi
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Level of exposure To assess the lev
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Table 2. Cases of acute pyrethroid
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(in 121 subjects), usually develope
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Deltamethrin was detectable in the
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pyrethroid poisoning. Therefore, th
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Gilliatt, R.W.; Willison, R.G. 1963
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Table 1. Value of imported pesticid
Page 77 and 78: Study two Twelve farmers participat
Page 79 and 80: All activities Left hand (73.2) Lef
Page 81 and 82: Acknowledgment- The three studies r
Page 83 and 84: Since the creation of Pakistan in 1
Page 85 and 86: Table 1. Incidents of pesticide poi
Page 87 and 88: Sandu, S.S.; Waters, M.D.; Simmon,
Page 89 and 90: and chlordane. Pest resistance to t
Page 91 and 92: young workers was 15.8%, 6.8%, and
Page 93 and 94: Storage of pesticides Although the
Page 95 and 96: Discussion The lowland regions and
Page 97 and 98: Pulmonary obstructive disease in a
Page 99 and 100: To investigate the presence and mea
Page 101 and 102: Age (years) Table 1. Distribution o
Page 103 and 104: was among paraquat users who smoked
Page 105 and 106: Levin, P.J.; Klaff, L.J.; Rose, A.G
Page 107 and 108: the delta. The total population of
Page 109 and 110: The successive and simultaneous rel
Page 111 and 112: on clinical studies and laboratory
Page 113 and 114: This made the collection of blood s
Page 115 and 116: Table 1. Relation between informati
Page 117 and 118: analysis, and engaging in various t
Page 119 and 120: Table 1. Value (million KSH) of pes
Page 121 and 122: To develop a health-education packa
Page 123 and 124: Storage site Table 3. Storage of ag
Page 125 and 126: Table 5. Causes of agrochemical and
Page 127: Methods A pilot field survey was un
Page 131 and 132: manufactured or formulated locally,
Page 133 and 134: However, based on individual compla
Page 135 and 136: Table 4. Acetylcholinesterase activ
Page 137 and 138: Age did not appear to be an importa
Page 139 and 140: eactions to the pesticides in occup
Page 141 and 142: Bowers, M,B.; Goodman, E.; Sim, V.M
Page 143 and 144: Extent of exposure of farm workers
Page 145 and 146: Group III consisted of 31 farmers w
Page 147 and 148: 25 - 0 Level of exposure J Group 1,
Page 149 and 150: Pesticides were stored everywhere c
Page 151 and 152: Table 2. Concluded. Question Answer
Page 153 and 154: PART II RELATING PESTICIDE DEVELOPM
Page 155 and 156: Toxicity Table 1. Requirements and
Page 157 and 158: Screening Process development Route
Page 159 and 160: Progress in improving safety Pestic
Page 161 and 162: type of formulation, and warning pr
Page 163 and 164: The pyrethroid, cypermethrin, is mo
Page 165 and 166: Studying the effects of pesticides
Page 167 and 168: of the risk is a quantitative issue
Page 169 and 170: egistry could be linked to the lice
Page 171 and 172: poisoned through mishandling of an
Page 173 and 174: no documented incident could be fou
Page 175 and 176: Region Table 3. Use of using pictog
Page 177 and 178: of fluorinated HDPE because fluorin
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Current initiatives, at the interna
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inding within their jurisdictions.
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Benefits of a hazard auditor From t
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different agencies take to be permi
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industry and of its serving to legi
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Anonymous. 1988a. FAO code of condu
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(Adam 1976; Fraser and Burrill 1979
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in the lower price categories tend
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Anas, N.; Jusoh Mamat, Md.; Heong,
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Zam, A.K. 1980. Bancian pengurusan
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Materials and methods Assessment of
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At the end of each day's operations
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Table 3. Number of garments chafing
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underlines the need to change attit
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Evaluation and management of pestic
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target and react with some crucial
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scientists on a contractual basis,
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pesticides in developing countries
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Regional information resources for
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Table 2. Number of enquiries receiv
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extent of this problem in developin
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Promoting the safe use of pesticide
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pests) is observed. Thus, the "quic
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is one of principal agencies respon
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Pretesting materials in training an
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of costly medical technologies and
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The agricultural sector has by far
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At the community level, the extent
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Neufeld, V. 1989. Community-based m
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Outline for learning module using o
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WHO (World Health Organization). 19
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In the past decade, tremendous effo
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Jiang-Su province Results and discu
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As a result of deregulation, the nu
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Table 3. Proportion of workers usin
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Shih, J.H.; Wu, Z.Q.; Zhang, Y.X.;
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Pesticides and wildlife: a short gu
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Using target-specific products mini
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specifications. Other data are asse
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Formulation-specific concerns The e
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mirex, and chiordecone have been ba
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1984). The base for pesticide granu
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e more stringently reviewed. In Can
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For example, searching for carcasse
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overlooked. In developing countries
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Establish monitoring programs to de
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Grue, C.E.; Fleming, W.J.; Busby, D
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Schafer, E.W., Jr; Brunton, R.B. 19
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Table 1. Prevalence and distributio
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By 1980, resistance to at least one
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tries. Japanese encephalitis has be
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to the targeted larvae of mosquitoe
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The role of the community Many prob
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from locally available sacking mate
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services. The project also includes
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Maxwell, C.A.; Curtis, C.F.; Haji,
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Botanical pesticides: optimizing pe
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neurotoxin but a cytotoxin, cross-r
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MoDuscicide- and pesticide-developm
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A development plan has been identif
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and environmental effects must be d
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Devitt, B.D.; Philogène, B.J.R.; H
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Endod, a potential natural pesticid
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University in Ottawa, and in other
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in the field (Lugt 1981), 137 500 m
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Hutchinson, J.; Dalziel, J.M. 1929.
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Community participation, including
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Acknowledgment- This research has b
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multiplication. The high temperatur
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Because pesticides are required in
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Africa and now East Africa. The suc
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Integrated pest management 1PM may
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to risk crop damage. Close involvem
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Ramos-Ocampo, V.E.; Magallona, E.D.
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esidues on fresh and cooked vegetab
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Grassy strip 108 N Farmer's Experim
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Table 1. Description and efficiency
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Table 3. Cost (PHP) of pest managem
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in the field. These pests were the
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PART V APPENDICES
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Ravindra Fernando, National Poisons
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Frank White, Pan-American Health Or
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ECHO abdominal ultrasonograph EEG e
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URT upper respiratory tract USAID U
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