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Control of disease vectors: a current perspective P. Wijeyaratne Health Sciences Division, International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada A brief history of the use of pesticides to control vector-borne dieases is presented. Integrated vector control is defined and some promising new approaches are described, with emphasis on environmental management and methods that lend themselves togreater community participation. The role of the community in vector control is discussed, and a brief account is given of some community-based vector control projects in Africa and South America. The use of pesticides in public health has been mainly to control vector-borne diseases. Vectors are small animals, mostly insects, that transmit pathogens from one host to another. Insects were incriminated as vectors of human disease as early as 1878, when Manson connected mosquitoes with filariasis. Soon afterwards, Ross and others showed that mosquitoes transmitted malaria (Harrison 1978). Some of the tropical diseases that most affect human well-being are vector borne (Table 1). Most of these diseases are associated with bloodsucking insects, and many are associated with water, because the vectors spend all or part of their life cycles in or near it. For example, culicine mosquito vectors of filariasis and Japanese encephalitis breed in water, ranging from organically polluted drains to rice fields; anopheline vectors of malaria in seepage puddles, ponds, and streams; Cyclops, the intermediate host in guineaworm disease, in wells and ponds; Bulinus, Biomphalaria, and Oncomelania snails, the intermediate hosts in schistosomiasis, in streams, low earth-dam reservoirs, and rice-irrigation systems; and Simulium vectors of onchocerciasis (river blindness) in fast-flowing waters including spiliways of dams. Other vector-borne diseases that have caused disastrous epidemics are typhus (Rickettsia prowazeki), transmitted by body lice (Pediculus humanus), and bubonic plague (Yersinia pestis), transmitted from rodents to humans by fleas (Xenopsylla cheopis and Pulex irritans). These diseases are not major problems 263
Table 1. Prevalence and distribution of some vector-borne diseases of humans. Estimated world Disease Vectors or intermediate hosts prevalencea Main areas of distribution' Malaria Mosquitoes (Anopheles spp.) 100 x 106/yr Pantropical Filariasis Mosquitoes (Anopheles, Culex, Aedes, Mansonia) 90 x i06 Africa, Asia Yellow fever Mosquitoes (Aedes spp., Haemagogus) - Africa, South America Dengue Mosquitoes (Aedes spp.) Pantropical Japanese encephalitis Mosquitoes (Culex spp.) Asia Onchocerciasis Blackflies (Simulium spp.) 18x106 Africa, Central and South America Leishmaniasis Sandflies (Lutzomyia, Phlebotomus) 12 x 106 Africa, mid-East, Asia, South America Sleeping sickness Tsetse flies (Glossina spp.) 20x103c Africa Chagas' disease Triatomine bugs (Triatoma, Panstrongylus, Rhodnius) 16-18x 106 Central and South America Schistosomiasis Snails (Biomphalaria, Bulinus, Oncomelania) 200x 106 Africa, Southeast Asia, Middle East Guineaworm Crustacean (Cc1ops) 5-l5xlO6'1 Africa, mid-East, India, Pakistan a WHO (1989a) unless otherwise stated. b WHO (1989b). c Number ofnew cases reported each year, but "...the real incidence is certainly much higher" (WHO 1989a). d Hopkins (1988).
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Impact of pesticide use on health i
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IMPACT OF PESTICIDE USE ON HEALTH I
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©International Development Researc
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Contents Acknowledgments viii Forew
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Control of disease vectors: a curre
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Foreword From their first appearanc
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PART! EPIDEMIOLOGY OF PESTICIDE POI
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Although pesticides are used both i
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Table 1. Introduction of pesticides
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problem. The International Developm
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impact of pesticides on Canadian wi
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investigated further. For example,
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Conclusions The subject of this vol
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Jusoh Mamat, M.; Anas, A.N.; Heong,
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Health-risk assessment of pesticide
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especially in the absence of comple
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depends largely on external factors
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Specific situations may require spe
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that the best possible work is done
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doses (chronic poisoning) or delaye
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Table 1. Poisoning incidents in fou
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Pesticide research for public healt
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Current pest control practices in T
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800- 400- 200 - 1980 1981 1982 1983
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designed 30-40 years ago (Jusoh Mam
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and tore easily. One investigation
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education, mass-communication tools
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Increase and improve training activ
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Castaneda, C.P. 1988. Pesticide poi
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Ooi, A.C.P.; Heong, K.L.; Lim, B.K.
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Investigations into acute pyrethroi
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Level of exposure To assess the lev
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Table 2. Cases of acute pyrethroid
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(in 121 subjects), usually develope
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Deltamethrin was detectable in the
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pyrethroid poisoning. Therefore, th
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Gilliatt, R.W.; Willison, R.G. 1963
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Table 1. Value of imported pesticid
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Study two Twelve farmers participat
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All activities Left hand (73.2) Lef
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Acknowledgment- The three studies r
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Since the creation of Pakistan in 1
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Table 1. Incidents of pesticide poi
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Sandu, S.S.; Waters, M.D.; Simmon,
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and chlordane. Pest resistance to t
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young workers was 15.8%, 6.8%, and
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Storage of pesticides Although the
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Discussion The lowland regions and
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Pulmonary obstructive disease in a
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To investigate the presence and mea
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Age (years) Table 1. Distribution o
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was among paraquat users who smoked
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Levin, P.J.; Klaff, L.J.; Rose, A.G
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the delta. The total population of
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The successive and simultaneous rel
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on clinical studies and laboratory
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This made the collection of blood s
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Table 1. Relation between informati
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analysis, and engaging in various t
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Table 1. Value (million KSH) of pes
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To develop a health-education packa
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Storage site Table 3. Storage of ag
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Table 5. Causes of agrochemical and
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Methods A pilot field survey was un
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Conclusion The practices followed b
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manufactured or formulated locally,
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However, based on individual compla
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Table 4. Acetylcholinesterase activ
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Age did not appear to be an importa
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eactions to the pesticides in occup
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Bowers, M,B.; Goodman, E.; Sim, V.M
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Extent of exposure of farm workers
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Group III consisted of 31 farmers w
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25 - 0 Level of exposure J Group 1,
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Pesticides were stored everywhere c
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Table 2. Concluded. Question Answer
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PART II RELATING PESTICIDE DEVELOPM
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Toxicity Table 1. Requirements and
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Screening Process development Route
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Progress in improving safety Pestic
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type of formulation, and warning pr
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The pyrethroid, cypermethrin, is mo
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Studying the effects of pesticides
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of the risk is a quantitative issue
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egistry could be linked to the lice
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poisoned through mishandling of an
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no documented incident could be fou
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Region Table 3. Use of using pictog
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of fluorinated HDPE because fluorin
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Current initiatives, at the interna
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inding within their jurisdictions.
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Benefits of a hazard auditor From t
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different agencies take to be permi
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industry and of its serving to legi
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Anonymous. 1988a. FAO code of condu
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(Adam 1976; Fraser and Burrill 1979
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in the lower price categories tend
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Anas, N.; Jusoh Mamat, Md.; Heong,
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Zam, A.K. 1980. Bancian pengurusan
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Materials and methods Assessment of
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At the end of each day's operations
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Table 3. Number of garments chafing
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underlines the need to change attit
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Evaluation and management of pestic
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target and react with some crucial
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scientists on a contractual basis,
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pesticides in developing countries
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Regional information resources for
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Table 2. Number of enquiries receiv
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extent of this problem in developin
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Promoting the safe use of pesticide
Page 223 and 224: pests) is observed. Thus, the "quic
Page 225 and 226: is one of principal agencies respon
Page 227 and 228: Pretesting materials in training an
Page 229 and 230: of costly medical technologies and
Page 231 and 232: The agricultural sector has by far
Page 233 and 234: At the community level, the extent
Page 235 and 236: Neufeld, V. 1989. Community-based m
Page 237 and 238: Outline for learning module using o
Page 239 and 240: WHO (World Health Organization). 19
Page 241 and 242: In the past decade, tremendous effo
Page 243 and 244: Jiang-Su province Results and discu
Page 245 and 246: As a result of deregulation, the nu
Page 247 and 248: Table 3. Proportion of workers usin
Page 249 and 250: Shih, J.H.; Wu, Z.Q.; Zhang, Y.X.;
Page 251 and 252: Pesticides and wildlife: a short gu
Page 253 and 254: Using target-specific products mini
Page 255 and 256: specifications. Other data are asse
Page 257 and 258: Formulation-specific concerns The e
Page 259 and 260: mirex, and chiordecone have been ba
Page 261 and 262: 1984). The base for pesticide granu
Page 263 and 264: e more stringently reviewed. In Can
Page 265 and 266: For example, searching for carcasse
Page 267 and 268: overlooked. In developing countries
Page 269 and 270: Establish monitoring programs to de
Page 271 and 272: Grue, C.E.; Fleming, W.J.; Busby, D
Page 273: Schafer, E.W., Jr; Brunton, R.B. 19
Page 277 and 278: By 1980, resistance to at least one
Page 279 and 280: tries. Japanese encephalitis has be
Page 281 and 282: to the targeted larvae of mosquitoe
Page 283 and 284: The role of the community Many prob
Page 285 and 286: from locally available sacking mate
Page 287 and 288: services. The project also includes
Page 289 and 290: Maxwell, C.A.; Curtis, C.F.; Haji,
Page 291 and 292: Botanical pesticides: optimizing pe
Page 293 and 294: neurotoxin but a cytotoxin, cross-r
Page 295 and 296: MoDuscicide- and pesticide-developm
Page 297 and 298: A development plan has been identif
Page 299 and 300: and environmental effects must be d
Page 301 and 302: Devitt, B.D.; Philogène, B.J.R.; H
Page 303 and 304: Endod, a potential natural pesticid
Page 305 and 306: University in Ottawa, and in other
Page 307 and 308: in the field (Lugt 1981), 137 500 m
Page 309 and 310: Hutchinson, J.; Dalziel, J.M. 1929.
Page 311 and 312: Community participation, including
Page 313 and 314: Acknowledgment- This research has b
Page 315 and 316: multiplication. The high temperatur
Page 317 and 318: Because pesticides are required in
Page 319 and 320: Africa and now East Africa. The suc
Page 321 and 322: Integrated pest management 1PM may
Page 323 and 324: to risk crop damage. Close involvem
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Ramos-Ocampo, V.E.; Magallona, E.D.
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esidues on fresh and cooked vegetab
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Grassy strip 108 N Farmer's Experim
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Table 1. Description and efficiency
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Table 3. Cost (PHP) of pest managem
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in the field. These pests were the
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PART V APPENDICES
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Ravindra Fernando, National Poisons
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Frank White, Pan-American Health Or
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ECHO abdominal ultrasonograph EEG e
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URT upper respiratory tract USAID U
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