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Data analysis Because of the many factors that influence AChE levels, nonparametric statistical tests were used to evaluate the significance of differences in activity These included Spearman and Wilcoxon ranked matched-pair tests. Significance tests were based on Spearman's matched-pairs rank correlation coefficient. Choice of pesticide Results and discussion The choice of methamidophos, the organophosphate pesticide used in this study, was left entirely to the farmers. To achieve uniform results, we opted to work with farmers using the same pesticide throughout the study. Methamidophos was not the best choice for our purposes, as it is a relatively weak AChE inhibitor in spite of its good insecticidal activity (Quistad et al. 1970). In addition, it is highly toxic, with a Class I toxicity rating; in rats, the acute oral LD50 (lethal dose to 50% of animals tested) is 30mg/kg in rats (WHO 1988). The concentration of pesticide after dilution was 1.2 gIL, which is double that recommended for the type of equipment the farmers normally use. Again the choice of concentration was left to the farmers. AChE levels in blood samples Mean AChE levels for Group I were significantly lower (at the 95% confidence level) 2 h after completion of the spraying operation compared with levels before spraying (Fig. 1). The difference was not significant on the following 2 days, indicating a recovery in AChE level. Exposure time for this group, which sprayed 1 000 L per subgroup of 1.2 gIL methamidophos, was 1.5-2 h per subgroup. At no time did AChE levels fall below normal range. Group II also displayed a significant decrease in AChE levels in whole blood during the first 2 h after spraying, but their AChE levels were also significantly below those measured before spraying on the following 2 days. This group sprayed 2 000 L of 1.2 gIL methamidophos per subgroup. We observed that 2 000 L (four tanks) was the minimum a farmer would use on a particular spraying day; hence this level of exposure is realistic. Total exposure time was 3-3.5 h per subgroup. No clinical symptoms of intoxication with methamidophos were evident among the participants, except for fatigue. AChE levels in whole blood were measured twice: during the spraying season in March and again at the end of the season in September. For the early test, 134
25 - 0 Level of exposure J Group 1, 1.5-2 hours . Group 2, 3-3.5 hours Time after exposure (hours) Fig. 1. Acetylcholinesterase levels in whole blood of participating farmers at selected times after they had finished spraying pesticide. farmers were asked not to handle pesticides for at least 3 days before blood samples were taken. Mean AChE activity (measured as change in absorbance per mm per mL of whole blood) was 19.13 ± 0.394 (mean ± standard error) at the end of the season compared with 23.34 ± 0.470 during the spraying season, a significant difference of 22% for Group IVa and 15% for Group IVb. This result was opposite to what we expected, i.e., lower AChE activity during the spraying season due to the effects of organophosphate and carbamate pesticides on cholinesterase enzymes. The seasonal differences in AChE activity may be the result of excessive contact with pesticides resulting in enzyme induction (Burgess and Roberts 1980). Roberts (1980) mentions the possibility that persistent exposure to pesticides may cause "cumulative biological changes." Individual differences in AChE activity are common (Loosli 1980). The farming population in the Jordan Valley has been using pesticides for at least the past 20 years. Dermal exposure Before 2 24 48 exposure Dermal exposure generally accounts for 90% of total exposure to pesticides by farmers. Seven pads were placed on each subject to determine which areas of the body were most exposed (Table 1). As expected, Group TI, which operated spraying equipment twice as long as Group I, experienced a higher degree of 135
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Impact of pesticide use on health i
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IMPACT OF PESTICIDE USE ON HEALTH I
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©International Development Researc
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Contents Acknowledgments viii Forew
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Control of disease vectors: a curre
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Foreword From their first appearanc
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PART! EPIDEMIOLOGY OF PESTICIDE POI
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Although pesticides are used both i
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Table 1. Introduction of pesticides
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problem. The International Developm
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impact of pesticides on Canadian wi
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investigated further. For example,
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Conclusions The subject of this vol
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Jusoh Mamat, M.; Anas, A.N.; Heong,
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Health-risk assessment of pesticide
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especially in the absence of comple
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depends largely on external factors
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Specific situations may require spe
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that the best possible work is done
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doses (chronic poisoning) or delaye
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Table 1. Poisoning incidents in fou
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Pesticide research for public healt
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Current pest control practices in T
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800- 400- 200 - 1980 1981 1982 1983
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designed 30-40 years ago (Jusoh Mam
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and tore easily. One investigation
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education, mass-communication tools
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Increase and improve training activ
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Castaneda, C.P. 1988. Pesticide poi
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Ooi, A.C.P.; Heong, K.L.; Lim, B.K.
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Investigations into acute pyrethroi
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Level of exposure To assess the lev
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Table 2. Cases of acute pyrethroid
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(in 121 subjects), usually develope
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Deltamethrin was detectable in the
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pyrethroid poisoning. Therefore, th
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Gilliatt, R.W.; Willison, R.G. 1963
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Table 1. Value of imported pesticid
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Study two Twelve farmers participat
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All activities Left hand (73.2) Lef
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Acknowledgment- The three studies r
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Since the creation of Pakistan in 1
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Table 1. Incidents of pesticide poi
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Sandu, S.S.; Waters, M.D.; Simmon,
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and chlordane. Pest resistance to t
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young workers was 15.8%, 6.8%, and
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Storage of pesticides Although the
Page 95 and 96: Discussion The lowland regions and
Page 97 and 98: Pulmonary obstructive disease in a
Page 99 and 100: To investigate the presence and mea
Page 101 and 102: Age (years) Table 1. Distribution o
Page 103 and 104: was among paraquat users who smoked
Page 105 and 106: Levin, P.J.; Klaff, L.J.; Rose, A.G
Page 107 and 108: the delta. The total population of
Page 109 and 110: The successive and simultaneous rel
Page 111 and 112: on clinical studies and laboratory
Page 113 and 114: This made the collection of blood s
Page 115 and 116: Table 1. Relation between informati
Page 117 and 118: analysis, and engaging in various t
Page 119 and 120: Table 1. Value (million KSH) of pes
Page 121 and 122: To develop a health-education packa
Page 123 and 124: Storage site Table 3. Storage of ag
Page 125 and 126: Table 5. Causes of agrochemical and
Page 127 and 128: Methods A pilot field survey was un
Page 129 and 130: Conclusion The practices followed b
Page 131 and 132: manufactured or formulated locally,
Page 133 and 134: However, based on individual compla
Page 135 and 136: Table 4. Acetylcholinesterase activ
Page 137 and 138: Age did not appear to be an importa
Page 139 and 140: eactions to the pesticides in occup
Page 141 and 142: Bowers, M,B.; Goodman, E.; Sim, V.M
Page 143 and 144: Extent of exposure of farm workers
Page 145: Group III consisted of 31 farmers w
Page 149 and 150: Pesticides were stored everywhere c
Page 151 and 152: Table 2. Concluded. Question Answer
Page 153 and 154: PART II RELATING PESTICIDE DEVELOPM
Page 155 and 156: Toxicity Table 1. Requirements and
Page 157 and 158: Screening Process development Route
Page 159 and 160: Progress in improving safety Pestic
Page 161 and 162: type of formulation, and warning pr
Page 163 and 164: The pyrethroid, cypermethrin, is mo
Page 165 and 166: Studying the effects of pesticides
Page 167 and 168: of the risk is a quantitative issue
Page 169 and 170: egistry could be linked to the lice
Page 171 and 172: poisoned through mishandling of an
Page 173 and 174: no documented incident could be fou
Page 175 and 176: Region Table 3. Use of using pictog
Page 177 and 178: of fluorinated HDPE because fluorin
Page 179 and 180: Current initiatives, at the interna
Page 181 and 182: inding within their jurisdictions.
Page 183 and 184: Benefits of a hazard auditor From t
Page 185 and 186: different agencies take to be permi
Page 187 and 188: industry and of its serving to legi
Page 189 and 190: Anonymous. 1988a. FAO code of condu
Page 191 and 192: (Adam 1976; Fraser and Burrill 1979
Page 193 and 194: in the lower price categories tend
Page 195 and 196: Anas, N.; Jusoh Mamat, Md.; Heong,
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Zam, A.K. 1980. Bancian pengurusan
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Materials and methods Assessment of
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At the end of each day's operations
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Table 3. Number of garments chafing
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underlines the need to change attit
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Evaluation and management of pestic
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target and react with some crucial
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scientists on a contractual basis,
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pesticides in developing countries
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Regional information resources for
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Table 2. Number of enquiries receiv
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extent of this problem in developin
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Promoting the safe use of pesticide
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pests) is observed. Thus, the "quic
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is one of principal agencies respon
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Pretesting materials in training an
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of costly medical technologies and
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The agricultural sector has by far
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At the community level, the extent
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Neufeld, V. 1989. Community-based m
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Outline for learning module using o
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WHO (World Health Organization). 19
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In the past decade, tremendous effo
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Jiang-Su province Results and discu
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As a result of deregulation, the nu
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Table 3. Proportion of workers usin
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Shih, J.H.; Wu, Z.Q.; Zhang, Y.X.;
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Pesticides and wildlife: a short gu
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Using target-specific products mini
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specifications. Other data are asse
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Formulation-specific concerns The e
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mirex, and chiordecone have been ba
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1984). The base for pesticide granu
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e more stringently reviewed. In Can
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For example, searching for carcasse
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overlooked. In developing countries
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Establish monitoring programs to de
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Grue, C.E.; Fleming, W.J.; Busby, D
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Schafer, E.W., Jr; Brunton, R.B. 19
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Table 1. Prevalence and distributio
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By 1980, resistance to at least one
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tries. Japanese encephalitis has be
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to the targeted larvae of mosquitoe
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The role of the community Many prob
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from locally available sacking mate
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services. The project also includes
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Maxwell, C.A.; Curtis, C.F.; Haji,
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Botanical pesticides: optimizing pe
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neurotoxin but a cytotoxin, cross-r
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MoDuscicide- and pesticide-developm
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A development plan has been identif
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and environmental effects must be d
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Devitt, B.D.; Philogène, B.J.R.; H
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Endod, a potential natural pesticid
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University in Ottawa, and in other
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in the field (Lugt 1981), 137 500 m
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Hutchinson, J.; Dalziel, J.M. 1929.
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Community participation, including
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Acknowledgment- This research has b
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multiplication. The high temperatur
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Because pesticides are required in
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Africa and now East Africa. The suc
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Integrated pest management 1PM may
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to risk crop damage. Close involvem
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Ramos-Ocampo, V.E.; Magallona, E.D.
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esidues on fresh and cooked vegetab
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Grassy strip 108 N Farmer's Experim
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Table 1. Description and efficiency
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Table 3. Cost (PHP) of pest managem
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in the field. These pests were the
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PART V APPENDICES
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Ravindra Fernando, National Poisons
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Frank White, Pan-American Health Or
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ECHO abdominal ultrasonograph EEG e
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URT upper respiratory tract USAID U
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