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Table 7. Nerve excitability in median nerve among farmers spraying deltamethrin for 3 days and the control group. No. with supernormal period >4 ms longer Absolute refractory Relative refractory Supernormal than previous detection Time of measurement period (ms) period (ms) period (ms) No. % Spray operators (n = 24) Before spraying 1.11 ± 0.61 4.51 ± 1.64 6.50 ± 3.77 - - After 3 days spraying 0.93 ± 0.53 5.04 ± 1.84 8.93 ± 4.91 10 41.7a 2 days after cessation 0.90 ± 0.12 5.69 ± 2.07 10.41 ± 602b 45.8a 11 Control group (n = 29)' 1st detection 0.87 ± 0.24 6.62 ± 3.42 8.16 ± 4.67 2nd detection 0.93 ± 0.50 6.04 ± 2.79 7.64 ± 3.43 0 0 3rddetection 0.84±0.13 7.03±2.69 9.12±3.53 1 5.3 a p
pyrethroid poisoning. Therefore, the importance of differential diagnosis should be emphasized. Overdiagnosis, misdiagnosis, and maldiagnosis should be avoided. The diagnostic criteria were used in the epidemiologic study to assess the extent of the acute pyrethroid poisoning problem in cotton farmers. The results showed that 834 out of 3 113 sprayers surveyed (27%) were clinically affected by exposure to pyrethroids, complaining of abnormal facial sensations (a symptom specific to pyrethroid exposure) as well as dizziness, headache, or fatigue, but with minimal signs. Only 10 sprayers were diagnosed with mild acute pyrethroid poisoning according to the diagnostic criteria. In this study, the prevalence of acute poisoning was 0.31% for subjects exposed to pyrethroids only and 0.38% in those exposed to pyrethroid and organophosphate mixtures. The risk of acute pyrethroid poisoning did not differ significantly between the two groups. The prevalence of acute pyrethroid poisoning in this study is lower than that of acute organophosphate poisoning in cotton farmers, reported to be 0.16-11.6% in China. Cases of acute pyrethroid poisoning in this survey were mild and the prognosis was good. In 38 of the subjects selected from the studied clusters, the measurement of air concentration, dermal exposure, and urinary excretion of pyrethroids or deltamethrin metabolites showed that dermal exposure was the most significant route of absorption. This indicates that minimizing dermal exposure is of paramount importance in the prevention of acute pyrethroid poisoning. Urinary deltamethrin and fenvalerate were both detectable, confirming the absorption of pyrethroids by spray operators, although these two pyrethroids metabolize rapidly. After I day of spraying, deltamethrin was present in urine up to 12 h after the beginning of spraying, but the deltamethrin metabolite Br2A was detectable at a higher level and for a longer time. Urinary fenvalerate was also present longer - up to 24 h after exposure began. Hence, the deltamethrin metabolite Br2A and fenvalerate in urine may be possible indicators for biological monitoring in pyrethroid-exposed subjects. Of 2 131 spray operators who had used pyrethroids every year from 1982 to 1987,25.7% experienced adverse effects due to pyrethroid exposure similar to the symptoms in this survey, but they recovered rapidly and entirely. No sequelae or long-lasting symptoms were found. This indicates that pyrethroids are unlikely to have chronic toxic effects in humans. However, the biological monitoring of 32 cotton growers spraying pyrethroids for 3 days showed that urinary pyrethroids were not detectable more than 24 h after exposure. In addition, 24 spray operators exposed to deltamethrin showed a prolonged supernormal period of median-nerve excitability after 3 days of spraying and 2 days after spraying had stopped; this increase of nerve excitability was reported by Parkin and Le Quesne (1982) and Takahashi and Le Quesne (1982) in animal experiments. Prolongation of the supernormal period and urinary pyrethroid excretion were not significantly correlated. However, these 59
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Impact of pesticide use on health i
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IMPACT OF PESTICIDE USE ON HEALTH I
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©International Development Researc
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Contents Acknowledgments viii Forew
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Control of disease vectors: a curre
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Foreword From their first appearanc
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PART! EPIDEMIOLOGY OF PESTICIDE POI
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Although pesticides are used both i
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Table 1. Introduction of pesticides
Page 19 and 20: problem. The International Developm
Page 21 and 22: impact of pesticides on Canadian wi
Page 23 and 24: investigated further. For example,
Page 25 and 26: Conclusions The subject of this vol
Page 27 and 28: Jusoh Mamat, M.; Anas, A.N.; Heong,
Page 29 and 30: Health-risk assessment of pesticide
Page 31 and 32: especially in the absence of comple
Page 33 and 34: depends largely on external factors
Page 35 and 36: Specific situations may require spe
Page 37 and 38: that the best possible work is done
Page 39 and 40: doses (chronic poisoning) or delaye
Page 41 and 42: Table 1. Poisoning incidents in fou
Page 43 and 44: Pesticide research for public healt
Page 45 and 46: Current pest control practices in T
Page 47 and 48: 800- 400- 200 - 1980 1981 1982 1983
Page 49 and 50: designed 30-40 years ago (Jusoh Mam
Page 51 and 52: and tore easily. One investigation
Page 53 and 54: education, mass-communication tools
Page 55 and 56: Increase and improve training activ
Page 57 and 58: Castaneda, C.P. 1988. Pesticide poi
Page 59 and 60: Ooi, A.C.P.; Heong, K.L.; Lim, B.K.
Page 61 and 62: Investigations into acute pyrethroi
Page 63 and 64: Level of exposure To assess the lev
Page 65 and 66: Table 2. Cases of acute pyrethroid
Page 67 and 68: (in 121 subjects), usually develope
Page 69: Deltamethrin was detectable in the
Page 73 and 74: Gilliatt, R.W.; Willison, R.G. 1963
Page 75 and 76: Table 1. Value of imported pesticid
Page 77 and 78: Study two Twelve farmers participat
Page 79 and 80: All activities Left hand (73.2) Lef
Page 81 and 82: Acknowledgment- The three studies r
Page 83 and 84: Since the creation of Pakistan in 1
Page 85 and 86: Table 1. Incidents of pesticide poi
Page 87 and 88: Sandu, S.S.; Waters, M.D.; Simmon,
Page 89 and 90: and chlordane. Pest resistance to t
Page 91 and 92: young workers was 15.8%, 6.8%, and
Page 93 and 94: Storage of pesticides Although the
Page 95 and 96: Discussion The lowland regions and
Page 97 and 98: Pulmonary obstructive disease in a
Page 99 and 100: To investigate the presence and mea
Page 101 and 102: Age (years) Table 1. Distribution o
Page 103 and 104: was among paraquat users who smoked
Page 105 and 106: Levin, P.J.; Klaff, L.J.; Rose, A.G
Page 107 and 108: the delta. The total population of
Page 109 and 110: The successive and simultaneous rel
Page 111 and 112: on clinical studies and laboratory
Page 113 and 114: This made the collection of blood s
Page 115 and 116: Table 1. Relation between informati
Page 117 and 118: analysis, and engaging in various t
Page 119 and 120: Table 1. Value (million KSH) of pes
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To develop a health-education packa
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Storage site Table 3. Storage of ag
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Table 5. Causes of agrochemical and
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Methods A pilot field survey was un
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Conclusion The practices followed b
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manufactured or formulated locally,
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However, based on individual compla
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Table 4. Acetylcholinesterase activ
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Age did not appear to be an importa
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eactions to the pesticides in occup
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Bowers, M,B.; Goodman, E.; Sim, V.M
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Extent of exposure of farm workers
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Group III consisted of 31 farmers w
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25 - 0 Level of exposure J Group 1,
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Pesticides were stored everywhere c
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Table 2. Concluded. Question Answer
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PART II RELATING PESTICIDE DEVELOPM
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Toxicity Table 1. Requirements and
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Screening Process development Route
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Progress in improving safety Pestic
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type of formulation, and warning pr
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The pyrethroid, cypermethrin, is mo
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Studying the effects of pesticides
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of the risk is a quantitative issue
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egistry could be linked to the lice
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poisoned through mishandling of an
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no documented incident could be fou
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Region Table 3. Use of using pictog
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of fluorinated HDPE because fluorin
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Current initiatives, at the interna
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inding within their jurisdictions.
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Benefits of a hazard auditor From t
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different agencies take to be permi
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industry and of its serving to legi
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Anonymous. 1988a. FAO code of condu
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(Adam 1976; Fraser and Burrill 1979
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in the lower price categories tend
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Anas, N.; Jusoh Mamat, Md.; Heong,
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Zam, A.K. 1980. Bancian pengurusan
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Materials and methods Assessment of
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At the end of each day's operations
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Table 3. Number of garments chafing
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underlines the need to change attit
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Evaluation and management of pestic
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target and react with some crucial
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scientists on a contractual basis,
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pesticides in developing countries
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Regional information resources for
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Table 2. Number of enquiries receiv
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extent of this problem in developin
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Promoting the safe use of pesticide
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pests) is observed. Thus, the "quic
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is one of principal agencies respon
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Pretesting materials in training an
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of costly medical technologies and
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The agricultural sector has by far
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At the community level, the extent
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Neufeld, V. 1989. Community-based m
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Outline for learning module using o
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WHO (World Health Organization). 19
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In the past decade, tremendous effo
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Jiang-Su province Results and discu
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As a result of deregulation, the nu
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Table 3. Proportion of workers usin
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Shih, J.H.; Wu, Z.Q.; Zhang, Y.X.;
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Pesticides and wildlife: a short gu
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Using target-specific products mini
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specifications. Other data are asse
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Formulation-specific concerns The e
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mirex, and chiordecone have been ba
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1984). The base for pesticide granu
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e more stringently reviewed. In Can
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For example, searching for carcasse
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overlooked. In developing countries
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Establish monitoring programs to de
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Grue, C.E.; Fleming, W.J.; Busby, D
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Schafer, E.W., Jr; Brunton, R.B. 19
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Table 1. Prevalence and distributio
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By 1980, resistance to at least one
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tries. Japanese encephalitis has be
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to the targeted larvae of mosquitoe
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The role of the community Many prob
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from locally available sacking mate
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services. The project also includes
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Maxwell, C.A.; Curtis, C.F.; Haji,
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Botanical pesticides: optimizing pe
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neurotoxin but a cytotoxin, cross-r
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MoDuscicide- and pesticide-developm
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A development plan has been identif
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and environmental effects must be d
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Devitt, B.D.; Philogène, B.J.R.; H
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Endod, a potential natural pesticid
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University in Ottawa, and in other
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in the field (Lugt 1981), 137 500 m
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Hutchinson, J.; Dalziel, J.M. 1929.
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Community participation, including
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Acknowledgment- This research has b
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multiplication. The high temperatur
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Because pesticides are required in
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Africa and now East Africa. The suc
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Integrated pest management 1PM may
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to risk crop damage. Close involvem
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Ramos-Ocampo, V.E.; Magallona, E.D.
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esidues on fresh and cooked vegetab
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Grassy strip 108 N Farmer's Experim
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Table 1. Description and efficiency
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Table 3. Cost (PHP) of pest managem
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in the field. These pests were the
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PART V APPENDICES
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Ravindra Fernando, National Poisons
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Frank White, Pan-American Health Or
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ECHO abdominal ultrasonograph EEG e
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URT upper respiratory tract USAID U
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