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Safer pesticide-application equipment for small-scale farmers in developing Asian countries Md. Jusoh Mamat,1 A.N. Anas,2 and S.H. Sarif Hashim2 1Fundamental Research Division and 2Agriculture, Engineering and Water Management Division, Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Many tropical Asian countries produce lever-operated knapsack sprayers locally. The quality of the sprayers ranges from poor to moderate, yet large numbers of these sprayers are bought and used in the region. Some of their unsafe features are: shap edges on the tank body, poor positioning of the pump body and linkage system, leak-prone connections, and poor quality materials. Factors leading to the continued production of inferior sprayers include the lack of incentives for local manufacturers to produce good quality sprayers, farmers' poor appreciation of quality and safety features, and the lack of national minimum product standards. Overcoming these problems requires the establishment of research programs in national agricultural research institutes to design safer and more efficient knapsack sprayers that can be produced locally, upgrading of farmers' training programs to improve their appreciation of good quality sprayers and safer spraying practices, and establishing minimum standards for knapsack sprayers. Unlike North America or Europe, the greatest concern relating to the escalating use of pesticides in developing Asian countries is the personal contamination of those applying the chemicals. Ironically, in cases of occupational poisoning or failed pest control, farmers put the blame on the pesticide. Seldom, if ever, is the method or apparatus used for application blamed. Yet, the design and condition of the equipment owned and used by farmers can contribute to the safe and efficient application of pesticides (Anas et al. 1987; Jusoh Mamat and Anas 1988). In many developing Asian countries, the lever-operated knapsack sprayer is still the most commonly used pesticide applicator among small-scale farmers 178
(Adam 1976; Fraser and Burrill 1979; Heinrichs et al. 1979; Litsinger et al. 1980; Prasadja and Ruhendi 1980; Lim et al. 1983; Jusoh Mamat et al. 1985). Major agricultural countries in South Asia produce lever-operated knapsack sprayers locally. However, the quality of these sprayers, in terms of efficiency and safety, ranges from very poor to moderate. In Malaysia, for example, the lever-operated knapsack sprayers (96% locally manufactured) used by rice farmers were not well designed and did not satisfy the minimum product standards set by the World Health Organization (Anas et al. 1987). Unsafe features of locally produced sprayers In using a lever-operated knapsack sprayer, the operator is exposed to two kinds of hazard: direct physical harm such as wounds and bruises caused by the equipment and contamination by the pesticides being applied. Hazardous features of knapsack sprayers have been discussed in detail (Fisher and Deutsch 1985; Anas et al. 1987; Thornhill 1987). Sharp edges on the tank body - Sharp edges are found at the bottom of the tank body, the body skirting, and the threaded knob where the pump lever is attached. These sharp edges can rub against and injure the operator's back or buttock area (if contaminated by pesticides, wounds can be even more serious). Sharp protrusions also cause injuries if the operator falls. Narrow straps made of unsuitable material - Knapsack sprayer straps are often too narrow (less than 5 cm) and made of hard, coarse materials. When a full load of 15-20 L of pesticide is carried, a hard narrow strap will dig into the shoulder muscles causing skin bruises. Because of the constant movement of the tank on the operator's back, bruises can appear after only two or three rounds of spraying with a full load. Straps may snap under a heavy load and cause the tank to fall, wounding the operator. If the straps give way early in the work period, farmers may replace them with even less appropriate materials, such as plastic rope, which is very uncomfortable, or soft cloth rope, which can absorb spilled or splashed pesticide and become a persistent source of contamination. Tank weight and balance - Most locally produced sprayers are made of brass and are heavy even when empty (over 6.5 kg). Carrying such a heavy sprayer often taxes the energy of slightly built Asian workers. This is especially true for women workers in the rubber and oil-palm plantations of Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand. The tank's centre of gravity, often located in the upper half, will cause the operator to be unbalanced and fall easily when walking on difficult terrain, such as wet and muddy paddy fields. Small tank port and shallow basket strainer - A tank port smaller than 12cm and basket strainers less than 5 cm deep can create an air lock. As a result, diluted pesticide can overflow and splash onto the operator's hands or legs as it is poured into the tank, particularly if this is done in haste. 179
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Impact of pesticide use on health i
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IMPACT OF PESTICIDE USE ON HEALTH I
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©International Development Researc
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Contents Acknowledgments viii Forew
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Control of disease vectors: a curre
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Foreword From their first appearanc
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PART! EPIDEMIOLOGY OF PESTICIDE POI
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Although pesticides are used both i
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Table 1. Introduction of pesticides
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problem. The International Developm
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impact of pesticides on Canadian wi
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investigated further. For example,
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Conclusions The subject of this vol
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Jusoh Mamat, M.; Anas, A.N.; Heong,
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Health-risk assessment of pesticide
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especially in the absence of comple
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depends largely on external factors
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Specific situations may require spe
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that the best possible work is done
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doses (chronic poisoning) or delaye
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Table 1. Poisoning incidents in fou
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Pesticide research for public healt
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Current pest control practices in T
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800- 400- 200 - 1980 1981 1982 1983
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designed 30-40 years ago (Jusoh Mam
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and tore easily. One investigation
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education, mass-communication tools
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Increase and improve training activ
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Castaneda, C.P. 1988. Pesticide poi
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Ooi, A.C.P.; Heong, K.L.; Lim, B.K.
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Investigations into acute pyrethroi
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Level of exposure To assess the lev
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Table 2. Cases of acute pyrethroid
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(in 121 subjects), usually develope
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Deltamethrin was detectable in the
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pyrethroid poisoning. Therefore, th
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Gilliatt, R.W.; Willison, R.G. 1963
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Table 1. Value of imported pesticid
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Study two Twelve farmers participat
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All activities Left hand (73.2) Lef
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Acknowledgment- The three studies r
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Since the creation of Pakistan in 1
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Table 1. Incidents of pesticide poi
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Sandu, S.S.; Waters, M.D.; Simmon,
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and chlordane. Pest resistance to t
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young workers was 15.8%, 6.8%, and
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Storage of pesticides Although the
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Discussion The lowland regions and
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Pulmonary obstructive disease in a
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To investigate the presence and mea
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Age (years) Table 1. Distribution o
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was among paraquat users who smoked
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Levin, P.J.; Klaff, L.J.; Rose, A.G
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the delta. The total population of
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The successive and simultaneous rel
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on clinical studies and laboratory
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This made the collection of blood s
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Table 1. Relation between informati
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analysis, and engaging in various t
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Table 1. Value (million KSH) of pes
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To develop a health-education packa
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Storage site Table 3. Storage of ag
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Table 5. Causes of agrochemical and
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Methods A pilot field survey was un
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Conclusion The practices followed b
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manufactured or formulated locally,
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However, based on individual compla
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Table 4. Acetylcholinesterase activ
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Age did not appear to be an importa
Page 139 and 140: eactions to the pesticides in occup
Page 141 and 142: Bowers, M,B.; Goodman, E.; Sim, V.M
Page 143 and 144: Extent of exposure of farm workers
Page 145 and 146: Group III consisted of 31 farmers w
Page 147 and 148: 25 - 0 Level of exposure J Group 1,
Page 149 and 150: Pesticides were stored everywhere c
Page 151 and 152: Table 2. Concluded. Question Answer
Page 153 and 154: PART II RELATING PESTICIDE DEVELOPM
Page 155 and 156: Toxicity Table 1. Requirements and
Page 157 and 158: Screening Process development Route
Page 159 and 160: Progress in improving safety Pestic
Page 161 and 162: type of formulation, and warning pr
Page 163 and 164: The pyrethroid, cypermethrin, is mo
Page 165 and 166: Studying the effects of pesticides
Page 167 and 168: of the risk is a quantitative issue
Page 169 and 170: egistry could be linked to the lice
Page 171 and 172: poisoned through mishandling of an
Page 173 and 174: no documented incident could be fou
Page 175 and 176: Region Table 3. Use of using pictog
Page 177 and 178: of fluorinated HDPE because fluorin
Page 179 and 180: Current initiatives, at the interna
Page 181 and 182: inding within their jurisdictions.
Page 183 and 184: Benefits of a hazard auditor From t
Page 185 and 186: different agencies take to be permi
Page 187 and 188: industry and of its serving to legi
Page 189: Anonymous. 1988a. FAO code of condu
Page 193 and 194: in the lower price categories tend
Page 195 and 196: Anas, N.; Jusoh Mamat, Md.; Heong,
Page 197 and 198: Zam, A.K. 1980. Bancian pengurusan
Page 199 and 200: Materials and methods Assessment of
Page 201 and 202: At the end of each day's operations
Page 203 and 204: Table 3. Number of garments chafing
Page 205 and 206: underlines the need to change attit
Page 207 and 208: Evaluation and management of pestic
Page 209 and 210: target and react with some crucial
Page 211 and 212: scientists on a contractual basis,
Page 213 and 214: pesticides in developing countries
Page 215 and 216: Regional information resources for
Page 217 and 218: Table 2. Number of enquiries receiv
Page 219 and 220: extent of this problem in developin
Page 221 and 222: Promoting the safe use of pesticide
Page 223 and 224: pests) is observed. Thus, the "quic
Page 225 and 226: is one of principal agencies respon
Page 227 and 228: Pretesting materials in training an
Page 229 and 230: of costly medical technologies and
Page 231 and 232: The agricultural sector has by far
Page 233 and 234: At the community level, the extent
Page 235 and 236: Neufeld, V. 1989. Community-based m
Page 237 and 238: Outline for learning module using o
Page 239 and 240: WHO (World Health Organization). 19
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In the past decade, tremendous effo
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Jiang-Su province Results and discu
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As a result of deregulation, the nu
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Table 3. Proportion of workers usin
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Shih, J.H.; Wu, Z.Q.; Zhang, Y.X.;
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Pesticides and wildlife: a short gu
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Using target-specific products mini
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specifications. Other data are asse
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Formulation-specific concerns The e
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mirex, and chiordecone have been ba
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1984). The base for pesticide granu
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e more stringently reviewed. In Can
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For example, searching for carcasse
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overlooked. In developing countries
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Establish monitoring programs to de
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Grue, C.E.; Fleming, W.J.; Busby, D
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Schafer, E.W., Jr; Brunton, R.B. 19
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Table 1. Prevalence and distributio
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By 1980, resistance to at least one
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tries. Japanese encephalitis has be
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to the targeted larvae of mosquitoe
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The role of the community Many prob
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from locally available sacking mate
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services. The project also includes
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Maxwell, C.A.; Curtis, C.F.; Haji,
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Botanical pesticides: optimizing pe
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neurotoxin but a cytotoxin, cross-r
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MoDuscicide- and pesticide-developm
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A development plan has been identif
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and environmental effects must be d
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Devitt, B.D.; Philogène, B.J.R.; H
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Endod, a potential natural pesticid
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University in Ottawa, and in other
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in the field (Lugt 1981), 137 500 m
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Hutchinson, J.; Dalziel, J.M. 1929.
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Community participation, including
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Acknowledgment- This research has b
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multiplication. The high temperatur
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Because pesticides are required in
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Africa and now East Africa. The suc
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Integrated pest management 1PM may
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to risk crop damage. Close involvem
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Ramos-Ocampo, V.E.; Magallona, E.D.
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esidues on fresh and cooked vegetab
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Grassy strip 108 N Farmer's Experim
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Table 1. Description and efficiency
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Table 3. Cost (PHP) of pest managem
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in the field. These pests were the
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PART V APPENDICES
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Ravindra Fernando, National Poisons
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Frank White, Pan-American Health Or
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ECHO abdominal ultrasonograph EEG e
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URT upper respiratory tract USAID U
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