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Table 3. Toxicity and other characteristics of three insecticides and one rodentidde. Giaracteristic Dieldrin Dichiorvos Cypermethrin Flocoumafen LD5O (mg/kg)a Oral, rat 37 30 251 025 75b Dermal, rat 60 > 1 600 0.54 Irritation, rabbit Skin Slight n.a.c Moderate None Eye Severe n.a. Moderate None Skin sensitization, guinea pig Negative Negative Very weak Negative Mutageniaty In vitro Negative Positive Negative Negative In vivo Negative Negative Negative Negative NOAEL,d rat in diet 90 day I ppm 10 ppm (105 days) 100 ppm 0.02 ppm Chronic 0.5 ppm 10 ppm lOOppm n.a. Carcinogenicity Mouse liver tumours only Some, but not relevant to humans Negative n.a. Teratogenicity Negative Negative Negative Negative Multigeneration reproduction Increased mortality in No specific effects No specific effects n.a. preweaning pups Dermal penetration Rapid Rapid Very slow Rapid Excretion Very slow, retention in fat Rapid Rapid Slow, retention in liver BM method Available Available Available Available Treatment Symptomatic Atropine, cholinesterase reactivators Symptomatic Vitamin K Source: Reviews of Toxicology, HSE Division, Shell International Petroleum Maatschappij B.V., The Hague, Netherlands. a Lowest values are given; LD5O = lethal dose to 50% of animals tested. b Female C n.a. = not available. d NOAEL, no adverse effect level, i.e., the findings in these studies do not generate any specific concern and there are no qualitative discrepancies between species.
The pyrethroid, cypermethrin, is moderately hazardous (class II) orally and slightly hazardous (class III) when absorbed through the skin. NOAELs in the 90-day and chronic feeding studies are 10 times those of dichiorvos and 100 times higher than those of dieldrin. Metabolism and excretion are rapid and other toxicity parameters are also favourable. The lower toxicity of pyrethroids, combined with their slow skin penetration make them safer to use. Skin sensations (tingling) that occur with overexposure usually disappear within a few hours and leave no aftereffects. These sensations act as a warning signal that exposure should be better controlled. Reported cases of occupational systemic poisoning with pyrethroids are rare. However, He et al. (1989) reported 229 cases in China, 2 of which were fatal. The explanation was a failure to observe basic principles of industrial hygiene (He et al. 1988, 1989). With respect to health and safety, however, the development and use of the pyrethroids was an improvement over the more toxic organophosphates. Flocoumafen, a representative of the latest generation of anticoagulants, was included in this overview to illustrate that extreme toxicity according to the WHO classification, does not necessarily mean a high risk to human health. Although flocoumafen is classified as extremely hazardous (class IA), it is also an extremely efficient rodenticide. The oral and dermal LD50 values of 0.25 and 0.54 mg/kg, respectively, and a 90-day NOAEL apply to the pure substance, but the formulation used to poison bait is almost nontoxic because it contains only 50 ppm' (w/w) of the active ingredient. In addition, during product development, a deliberate effort was made to make poisoned bait unattractive to nontarget species by incorporating it into wax blocks with a deterrent colour (blue) and a bitter taste. These measures have rendered a potentially hazardous product safe for practical use. In the unlikely event of an intoxication, a specific antidote (vitamin K) is available. No cases of human intoxication have been reported. Conclusion Pesticides must meet many requirements, the most important of which is efficacy. Therefore, selection always begins with efficacy testing. If results are promising, additional work will be carried out to test for human and environmental safety. Commercial and technical requirements must also be met. Progress in increasing specificity and improving efficacy has made possible dramatically lower application rates, resulting in a major reduction in exposure of people applying the substances. In a number of cases, a reduction in intrinsic toxicity for mammals has also been achieved. Guided by better understanding of intrinsic toxicity and data on personal exposure during application, product development and product stewardship can contribute to safety through improved formulations and packaging and 151
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Impact of pesticide use on health i
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IMPACT OF PESTICIDE USE ON HEALTH I
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©International Development Researc
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Contents Acknowledgments viii Forew
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Control of disease vectors: a curre
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Foreword From their first appearanc
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PART! EPIDEMIOLOGY OF PESTICIDE POI
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Although pesticides are used both i
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Table 1. Introduction of pesticides
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problem. The International Developm
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impact of pesticides on Canadian wi
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investigated further. For example,
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Conclusions The subject of this vol
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Jusoh Mamat, M.; Anas, A.N.; Heong,
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Health-risk assessment of pesticide
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especially in the absence of comple
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depends largely on external factors
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Specific situations may require spe
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that the best possible work is done
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doses (chronic poisoning) or delaye
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Table 1. Poisoning incidents in fou
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Pesticide research for public healt
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Current pest control practices in T
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800- 400- 200 - 1980 1981 1982 1983
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designed 30-40 years ago (Jusoh Mam
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and tore easily. One investigation
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education, mass-communication tools
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Increase and improve training activ
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Castaneda, C.P. 1988. Pesticide poi
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Ooi, A.C.P.; Heong, K.L.; Lim, B.K.
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Investigations into acute pyrethroi
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Level of exposure To assess the lev
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Table 2. Cases of acute pyrethroid
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(in 121 subjects), usually develope
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Deltamethrin was detectable in the
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pyrethroid poisoning. Therefore, th
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Gilliatt, R.W.; Willison, R.G. 1963
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Table 1. Value of imported pesticid
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Study two Twelve farmers participat
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All activities Left hand (73.2) Lef
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Acknowledgment- The three studies r
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Since the creation of Pakistan in 1
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Table 1. Incidents of pesticide poi
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Sandu, S.S.; Waters, M.D.; Simmon,
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and chlordane. Pest resistance to t
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young workers was 15.8%, 6.8%, and
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Storage of pesticides Although the
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Discussion The lowland regions and
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Pulmonary obstructive disease in a
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To investigate the presence and mea
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Age (years) Table 1. Distribution o
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was among paraquat users who smoked
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Levin, P.J.; Klaff, L.J.; Rose, A.G
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the delta. The total population of
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The successive and simultaneous rel
Page 111 and 112: on clinical studies and laboratory
Page 113 and 114: This made the collection of blood s
Page 115 and 116: Table 1. Relation between informati
Page 117 and 118: analysis, and engaging in various t
Page 119 and 120: Table 1. Value (million KSH) of pes
Page 121 and 122: To develop a health-education packa
Page 123 and 124: Storage site Table 3. Storage of ag
Page 125 and 126: Table 5. Causes of agrochemical and
Page 127 and 128: Methods A pilot field survey was un
Page 129 and 130: Conclusion The practices followed b
Page 131 and 132: manufactured or formulated locally,
Page 133 and 134: However, based on individual compla
Page 135 and 136: Table 4. Acetylcholinesterase activ
Page 137 and 138: Age did not appear to be an importa
Page 139 and 140: eactions to the pesticides in occup
Page 141 and 142: Bowers, M,B.; Goodman, E.; Sim, V.M
Page 143 and 144: Extent of exposure of farm workers
Page 145 and 146: Group III consisted of 31 farmers w
Page 147 and 148: 25 - 0 Level of exposure J Group 1,
Page 149 and 150: Pesticides were stored everywhere c
Page 151 and 152: Table 2. Concluded. Question Answer
Page 153 and 154: PART II RELATING PESTICIDE DEVELOPM
Page 155 and 156: Toxicity Table 1. Requirements and
Page 157 and 158: Screening Process development Route
Page 159 and 160: Progress in improving safety Pestic
Page 161: type of formulation, and warning pr
Page 165 and 166: Studying the effects of pesticides
Page 167 and 168: of the risk is a quantitative issue
Page 169 and 170: egistry could be linked to the lice
Page 171 and 172: poisoned through mishandling of an
Page 173 and 174: no documented incident could be fou
Page 175 and 176: Region Table 3. Use of using pictog
Page 177 and 178: of fluorinated HDPE because fluorin
Page 179 and 180: Current initiatives, at the interna
Page 181 and 182: inding within their jurisdictions.
Page 183 and 184: Benefits of a hazard auditor From t
Page 185 and 186: different agencies take to be permi
Page 187 and 188: industry and of its serving to legi
Page 189 and 190: Anonymous. 1988a. FAO code of condu
Page 191 and 192: (Adam 1976; Fraser and Burrill 1979
Page 193 and 194: in the lower price categories tend
Page 195 and 196: Anas, N.; Jusoh Mamat, Md.; Heong,
Page 197 and 198: Zam, A.K. 1980. Bancian pengurusan
Page 199 and 200: Materials and methods Assessment of
Page 201 and 202: At the end of each day's operations
Page 203 and 204: Table 3. Number of garments chafing
Page 205 and 206: underlines the need to change attit
Page 207 and 208: Evaluation and management of pestic
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Page 211 and 212: scientists on a contractual basis,
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pesticides in developing countries
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Regional information resources for
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Table 2. Number of enquiries receiv
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extent of this problem in developin
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Promoting the safe use of pesticide
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pests) is observed. Thus, the "quic
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is one of principal agencies respon
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Pretesting materials in training an
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of costly medical technologies and
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The agricultural sector has by far
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At the community level, the extent
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Neufeld, V. 1989. Community-based m
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Outline for learning module using o
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WHO (World Health Organization). 19
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In the past decade, tremendous effo
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Jiang-Su province Results and discu
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As a result of deregulation, the nu
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Table 3. Proportion of workers usin
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Shih, J.H.; Wu, Z.Q.; Zhang, Y.X.;
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Pesticides and wildlife: a short gu
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Using target-specific products mini
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specifications. Other data are asse
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Formulation-specific concerns The e
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mirex, and chiordecone have been ba
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1984). The base for pesticide granu
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e more stringently reviewed. In Can
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For example, searching for carcasse
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overlooked. In developing countries
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Establish monitoring programs to de
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Grue, C.E.; Fleming, W.J.; Busby, D
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Schafer, E.W., Jr; Brunton, R.B. 19
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Table 1. Prevalence and distributio
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By 1980, resistance to at least one
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tries. Japanese encephalitis has be
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to the targeted larvae of mosquitoe
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The role of the community Many prob
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from locally available sacking mate
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services. The project also includes
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Maxwell, C.A.; Curtis, C.F.; Haji,
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Botanical pesticides: optimizing pe
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neurotoxin but a cytotoxin, cross-r
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MoDuscicide- and pesticide-developm
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A development plan has been identif
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and environmental effects must be d
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Devitt, B.D.; Philogène, B.J.R.; H
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Endod, a potential natural pesticid
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University in Ottawa, and in other
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in the field (Lugt 1981), 137 500 m
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Hutchinson, J.; Dalziel, J.M. 1929.
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Community participation, including
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Acknowledgment- This research has b
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multiplication. The high temperatur
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Because pesticides are required in
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Africa and now East Africa. The suc
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Integrated pest management 1PM may
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to risk crop damage. Close involvem
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Ramos-Ocampo, V.E.; Magallona, E.D.
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esidues on fresh and cooked vegetab
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Grassy strip 108 N Farmer's Experim
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Table 1. Description and efficiency
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Table 3. Cost (PHP) of pest managem
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in the field. These pests were the
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PART V APPENDICES
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Ravindra Fernando, National Poisons
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Frank White, Pan-American Health Or
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ECHO abdominal ultrasonograph EEG e
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URT upper respiratory tract USAID U
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