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findings may imply an increased risk of intoxication as a result of consecutive exposures to pyrethroids, and might well explain why the convulsive attacks in severe acute pyrethroid-poisoning cases can persist for I week (He et al. 1989). Higher risk of acute pyrethroid poisoning is related to the unsatisfactory knowledge, attitudes, and practices among farmers. These include ignorance of pyrethroid toxicity; spraying pyrethroids in high concentrations; cleaning equipment with mouth and hands; leakage of sprayers; lack of personal protection; and unsafe spraying habits. This study confirmed these to be causal factors in identified cases of intoxication. Recommendations An educational strategy for the safe use of pesticides in rural areas is advocated. Spray operators, local agricultural technicians, village-health personnel, and those involved in transportation, storage, and distribution of pesticides should be taught the risks involved in the handling of toxic pesticides, the toxicity and adverse effects of pyrethroids, preventive measures, and the importance of personal hygiene. Pamphlets, videocasts, films, and training courses are suggested because these are feasible and useful approaches to implement in the rural areas. To avoid pyrethroid contamination of sprayer's hands, spraying equipment should be improved to prevent leakage. Packaging pyrethroids in disposable 1O-mL plastic eye-drop bottles is also suggested. Because the heaviest dermal exposure occurs on legs and polyester trousers offer 66-88% protection against pyrethroids, it is advisable for spray operators to wear a long plastic apron in addition to their polyester trousers during spraying in the fields. Regulations concerning safe production, transportation, storage, distribution, and use of pyrethroids and other pesticides should be established. Moreover, multisectoral efforts should be devoted to the implementation of these regulations. Occupational health in rural areas should be integrated into primary health care to improve occupational health services for agricultural workers by prevention, early diagnosis, and treatment of acute pyrethroid poisoning. Acknowledgment This work was carried out with the aid of a grant from the International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada. 60
Gilliatt, R.W.; Willison, R.G. 1963. The refractory and supernormal periods of the human median nerve. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 26, 136-147. Han K.; Xiang B.; Xu B.; Wang C.; Wu Y.; Gao X. 1988. Measurements of deltamethrin and fenvalerate in air by gas chromatography. Journal of Hygiene Research, 17(2), 13-17. [In Chinese]. He F; Sun J.; Han K.; Wu Y.; Yao P.; Wang S.; Liu L. 1988. Effects of pyrethroid insecticides on subjects engaged in packaging pyrethroids. British Journal of Industrial Medicine, 45, 548-551. He F; Wang S.; Liu L.; Chen S.; Zhang Z.; Sun J. 1989. Clinical manifestations and diagnosis of acute pyrethroid poisoning. Archives of Toxicology, 63,54-58. Kolmodin-Hedman, B.; Swensson, A.; Akerblom, M. 1982. Occupational exposure to some synthetic pyrethroids (permethrin and fenvalerate). Archives of Toxicology, 50, 27-33. Le Quesne, P.M.; Maxwell, I.C. 1980. Transient facial sensory symptoms following exposure to synthetic pyrethroids: a clinical and electrophysiological assessment. Neurotoxicology, 2,1-11. Parkin, P.J.; Le Quesne, P.M. 1982. Effect of a synthetic pyrethroid deltamethrin on excitability changes following a nerve impulse. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 45, 337-342. Takahashi, M.; Le Quesne, P.M. 1982. The effects of the pyrethroids deltamethrin and cismethrin on nerve excitability in rats. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 45, 1 005-1 011. Tucker, S.B.; Flannigan, S.A. 1983. Cutaneous effects from occupational exposure to fenvalerate. Archives of Toxicology, 54, 195-202. Vijverberg, H.P.M.; Bercken, J.V.D. 1982. Action of pyrethroid insecticides on the vertebrate nervous system. Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology, 8, 421-440. WHO (World Health Organization). 1982. Field surveys of exposure to pesticides. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland. Standard Protocol VBC/82.1. Wu Y.; Gao X.; Li C.; Wang Y. 1992. Determination of urinary deltamethrin and fenvalerate in man by gas chromatography. (In press). Yao P.; Li Y.; Zhang X.; He F. 1992. Biological monitoring of deltamethrin metabolites in spraymen and one suicide by HPLC. (In press). 61
Page 1 and 2:
Impact of pesticide use on health i
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IMPACT OF PESTICIDE USE ON HEALTH I
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©International Development Researc
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Contents Acknowledgments viii Forew
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Control of disease vectors: a curre
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Foreword From their first appearanc
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PART! EPIDEMIOLOGY OF PESTICIDE POI
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Although pesticides are used both i
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Table 1. Introduction of pesticides
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problem. The International Developm
Page 21 and 22: impact of pesticides on Canadian wi
Page 23 and 24: investigated further. For example,
Page 25 and 26: Conclusions The subject of this vol
Page 27 and 28: Jusoh Mamat, M.; Anas, A.N.; Heong,
Page 29 and 30: Health-risk assessment of pesticide
Page 31 and 32: especially in the absence of comple
Page 33 and 34: depends largely on external factors
Page 35 and 36: Specific situations may require spe
Page 37 and 38: that the best possible work is done
Page 39 and 40: doses (chronic poisoning) or delaye
Page 41 and 42: Table 1. Poisoning incidents in fou
Page 43 and 44: Pesticide research for public healt
Page 45 and 46: Current pest control practices in T
Page 47 and 48: 800- 400- 200 - 1980 1981 1982 1983
Page 49 and 50: designed 30-40 years ago (Jusoh Mam
Page 51 and 52: and tore easily. One investigation
Page 53 and 54: education, mass-communication tools
Page 55 and 56: Increase and improve training activ
Page 57 and 58: Castaneda, C.P. 1988. Pesticide poi
Page 59 and 60: Ooi, A.C.P.; Heong, K.L.; Lim, B.K.
Page 61 and 62: Investigations into acute pyrethroi
Page 63 and 64: Level of exposure To assess the lev
Page 65 and 66: Table 2. Cases of acute pyrethroid
Page 67 and 68: (in 121 subjects), usually develope
Page 69 and 70: Deltamethrin was detectable in the
Page 71: pyrethroid poisoning. Therefore, th
Page 75 and 76: Table 1. Value of imported pesticid
Page 77 and 78: Study two Twelve farmers participat
Page 79 and 80: All activities Left hand (73.2) Lef
Page 81 and 82: Acknowledgment- The three studies r
Page 83 and 84: Since the creation of Pakistan in 1
Page 85 and 86: Table 1. Incidents of pesticide poi
Page 87 and 88: Sandu, S.S.; Waters, M.D.; Simmon,
Page 89 and 90: and chlordane. Pest resistance to t
Page 91 and 92: young workers was 15.8%, 6.8%, and
Page 93 and 94: Storage of pesticides Although the
Page 95 and 96: Discussion The lowland regions and
Page 97 and 98: Pulmonary obstructive disease in a
Page 99 and 100: To investigate the presence and mea
Page 101 and 102: Age (years) Table 1. Distribution o
Page 103 and 104: was among paraquat users who smoked
Page 105 and 106: Levin, P.J.; Klaff, L.J.; Rose, A.G
Page 107 and 108: the delta. The total population of
Page 109 and 110: The successive and simultaneous rel
Page 111 and 112: on clinical studies and laboratory
Page 113 and 114: This made the collection of blood s
Page 115 and 116: Table 1. Relation between informati
Page 117 and 118: analysis, and engaging in various t
Page 119 and 120: Table 1. Value (million KSH) of pes
Page 121 and 122: To develop a health-education packa
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Storage site Table 3. Storage of ag
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Table 5. Causes of agrochemical and
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Methods A pilot field survey was un
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Conclusion The practices followed b
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manufactured or formulated locally,
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However, based on individual compla
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Table 4. Acetylcholinesterase activ
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Age did not appear to be an importa
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eactions to the pesticides in occup
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Bowers, M,B.; Goodman, E.; Sim, V.M
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Extent of exposure of farm workers
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Group III consisted of 31 farmers w
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25 - 0 Level of exposure J Group 1,
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Pesticides were stored everywhere c
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Table 2. Concluded. Question Answer
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PART II RELATING PESTICIDE DEVELOPM
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Toxicity Table 1. Requirements and
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Screening Process development Route
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Progress in improving safety Pestic
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type of formulation, and warning pr
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The pyrethroid, cypermethrin, is mo
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Studying the effects of pesticides
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of the risk is a quantitative issue
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egistry could be linked to the lice
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poisoned through mishandling of an
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no documented incident could be fou
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Region Table 3. Use of using pictog
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of fluorinated HDPE because fluorin
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Current initiatives, at the interna
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inding within their jurisdictions.
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Benefits of a hazard auditor From t
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different agencies take to be permi
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industry and of its serving to legi
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Anonymous. 1988a. FAO code of condu
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(Adam 1976; Fraser and Burrill 1979
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in the lower price categories tend
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Anas, N.; Jusoh Mamat, Md.; Heong,
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Zam, A.K. 1980. Bancian pengurusan
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Materials and methods Assessment of
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At the end of each day's operations
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Table 3. Number of garments chafing
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underlines the need to change attit
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Evaluation and management of pestic
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target and react with some crucial
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scientists on a contractual basis,
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pesticides in developing countries
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Regional information resources for
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Table 2. Number of enquiries receiv
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extent of this problem in developin
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Promoting the safe use of pesticide
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pests) is observed. Thus, the "quic
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is one of principal agencies respon
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Pretesting materials in training an
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of costly medical technologies and
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The agricultural sector has by far
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At the community level, the extent
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Neufeld, V. 1989. Community-based m
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Outline for learning module using o
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WHO (World Health Organization). 19
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In the past decade, tremendous effo
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Jiang-Su province Results and discu
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As a result of deregulation, the nu
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Table 3. Proportion of workers usin
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Shih, J.H.; Wu, Z.Q.; Zhang, Y.X.;
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Pesticides and wildlife: a short gu
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Using target-specific products mini
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specifications. Other data are asse
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Formulation-specific concerns The e
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mirex, and chiordecone have been ba
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1984). The base for pesticide granu
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e more stringently reviewed. In Can
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For example, searching for carcasse
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overlooked. In developing countries
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Establish monitoring programs to de
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Grue, C.E.; Fleming, W.J.; Busby, D
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Schafer, E.W., Jr; Brunton, R.B. 19
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Table 1. Prevalence and distributio
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By 1980, resistance to at least one
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tries. Japanese encephalitis has be
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to the targeted larvae of mosquitoe
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The role of the community Many prob
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from locally available sacking mate
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services. The project also includes
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Maxwell, C.A.; Curtis, C.F.; Haji,
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Botanical pesticides: optimizing pe
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neurotoxin but a cytotoxin, cross-r
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MoDuscicide- and pesticide-developm
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A development plan has been identif
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and environmental effects must be d
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Devitt, B.D.; Philogène, B.J.R.; H
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Endod, a potential natural pesticid
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University in Ottawa, and in other
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in the field (Lugt 1981), 137 500 m
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Hutchinson, J.; Dalziel, J.M. 1929.
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Community participation, including
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Acknowledgment- This research has b
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multiplication. The high temperatur
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Because pesticides are required in
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Africa and now East Africa. The suc
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Integrated pest management 1PM may
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to risk crop damage. Close involvem
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Ramos-Ocampo, V.E.; Magallona, E.D.
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esidues on fresh and cooked vegetab
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Grassy strip 108 N Farmer's Experim
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Table 1. Description and efficiency
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Table 3. Cost (PHP) of pest managem
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in the field. These pests were the
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PART V APPENDICES
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Ravindra Fernando, National Poisons
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Frank White, Pan-American Health Or
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ECHO abdominal ultrasonograph EEG e
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URT upper respiratory tract USAID U
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