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Chemical pesticide solutions
Synthetic pesticides (insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, etc.) are used widely
in developing countries in plantation and large-scale farming activities and
by small-scale farmers for cash crops of cotton, vegetables, and fruits for local
and export markets. Their use is expanding and is expected to double in the
next 10 years. In the "green revolution" areas, where grain production (rice,
maize, and wheat) has increased dramatically, technical assistance and credit
have been available for pest management. Pesticide use has increased substantially
in these areas, whereas small-scale farmers growing subsistence crops
often use little or no pesticide.
The health risk to small-scale farmers from use of synthetic pesticides is much
greater (and may be unacceptable) in developing countries compared to
developed countries. The backpack sprayer is the type most widely used and
results in much greater operator exposure than the more sophisticated and
large-scale equipment found in industrialized countries. Backpack sprayers
often leak and are poorly maintained. In a Malaysian rice-growing area, 58%
of sprayers were corroded, 48% had dented or cracked tanks, and 25% leaked
from the tank valve or hose (Loevinsohn 1987). This results in even higher
operator exposure. Suitable protective clothes are not available or cannot be
worn because of the heat and humidity. Even when they are used (cotton
gloves and handkerchiefs or shawls as respirators), they quickly become
saturated and actually increase exposure.
Although there is little information on pesticide residues in food for developing
countries, particularly food intended for local consumption, export crops
are analyzed for residues to protect consumers in developed nations. Vegetables
and fruits appear to receive the highest pesticide doses and may contain
high levels of residue. In Southeast Asia, most of the "official" information
indicates that residue levels meet standards acceptable to the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) (Hashim and Yeoh 1988; Ramos-Ocampo et
al. 1988; Soekardi 1988; Tayaputch 1988). However, less-official reports indicate
vegetables may contain unacceptable levels of pesticides.
This situation is made worse by farmers' practice of spraying right up to
harvest and applying fungicides during transport to market. In the Philippines,
vegetable farmers increased spray applications as harvest time
approached and even dipped freshly picked vegetables in formalin to maintain
consumer appeal (Rola 1988). Banned or restricted organochlorines, such
as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), dieldrin, and aldrin, were present
in most vegetables, sometimes in excess of allowable limits. A similar situation
was found in Thailand where organochlorine residues (particularly DDT,
dieldrin, and heptachlor) were found at levels above FAO-acceptable limits in
peanut seeds purchased in the markets (Wanleelag and Tau-Tong 1986, 1987;
Wanleelag et al. 1988).
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