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Table 3. Number of farmers using various types of pyrethroids. 1987 1988 Total no. % Deltamethrin Pure EC Mixed with - 980 379 1 359 43.7 organophosphates DDVP Methamidophos o-methoate Others 318 157 95 45 21 - 318 157 95 45 21 10.2 Fenvalerate Pure EC 492 729 1 221 39.2 Mixed with - organophosphates 203 203 6.5 DDVP 123 - 123 Methamidophos 43 30 o-methoate 30 7 Others 7 7 Cypermethrin PureEC 7 1 8 0.3 Mixed with organophosphates 4 - 4 0.1 aEc emulsifiable concentrate. 4 h/day for 69.1% of the farmers. The mean rate of exposure to pure pyrethroids was less than 40 mL/h for two-thirds of the farmers. The equipment of 778 cotton farmers leaked or became blocked during spraying; 65.2% of them cleared stoppages using their mouths or hands, leading to potential topical contamination. Moreover, 91.6% of the cotton farmers prepared the pyrethroids by hand, using the lid of the pyrethroid container instead of a measuring glass, presenting another opportunity for skin contact. The survey of knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) of pyrethroid users showed that 2 137 cotton farmers (69.8%) were unaware of the toxicity of pyrethroids. In addition, their personal protection was not satisfactory. None wore a mask or gloves. Approximately half the farmers kept their upper extremities or feet uncovered during spraying. The majority of spraying operations did not comply with safe-handling practices: 67% did not spray every other row of cotton; 84% sprayed while walking backward; 45% sprayed into the wind; and 9% ate or smoked in the field without washing their hands first. Because of sloppy handling, 67% of the farmers had their shoes and trousers soaked with pyrethroids. Of the subjects, 98% (3 051) were in good health before the study. Symptoms, such as abnormal facial sensations (appearing in 742 subjects) and dizziness 54
(in 121 subjects), usually developed within 4 h after exposure during spraying. A total of 834 farmers (26.8%), including 696 spraying only pyrethroids and 138 spraying pyrethroid-organophosphate mixtures, developed burning and tingling sensations, mainly on the face, but also on the neck or upper extremities. These skin symptoms often disappeared within 24 h. Systemic symptoms were also observed, but with minimal signs (Table 4). After excluding other possible diseases, only 10 subjects who developed all five systemic symptoms (dizziness, headache, fatigue, nausea, and anorexia) and signs (listlessness and muscular fasciculation) in addition to abnormal facial sensations were diagnosed as having mild acute pyrethroid poisoning (Table 5). Based on the diagnostic criteria, four were cases of mild acute deltamethnn poisoning; four were diagnosed as mild acute fenvalerate poisoning; and two were deltamethrin-DDVP poisoning with normal blood cholinesterase activity. All patients recovered within 2-4 days. In this study, the prevalence rate of occupational acute pyrethroid poisoning was 0.31% among subjects exposed to pyrethroids only and 0.38% among those exposed to pyrethroid-organophosphate mixtures. The risk of acute pyrethroid poisoning did not differ significantly (p > 0.05) between the two groups. Investigation revealed that 2 131 cotton growers in the study had been previously exposed to pyrethroids since 1982. 01 them, 25.7% (547 subjects) were exposed to pyrethroids every year between 1982 and 1987 and experienced abnormal facial sensations, dizziness, headache, or nausea after each spraying, but all recovered within 2 days. No sequelae were found. This suggests that pyrethroids are unlikely to have chronic toxicity for humans. Table 4. Number of farmers showing symptoms and signs of pyrethroid poisoning (n = 834). 55 No. % Symptom Abnormal sensations 768 92.1 Dizziness 121 14.5 Headache 99 11.9 Fatigue 91 10.9 Nausea 68 8.2 Anorexia 44 5.3 General malaise 33 4.0 Blurred vision 23 2.8 Chest tightness 18 2.2 Sign Listlessness 10 1.2 Muscle fasciculation 1 0.2
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Impact of pesticide use on health i
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IMPACT OF PESTICIDE USE ON HEALTH I
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©International Development Researc
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Contents Acknowledgments viii Forew
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Control of disease vectors: a curre
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Foreword From their first appearanc
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PART! EPIDEMIOLOGY OF PESTICIDE POI
Page 15 and 16: Although pesticides are used both i
Page 17 and 18: Table 1. Introduction of pesticides
Page 19 and 20: problem. The International Developm
Page 21 and 22: impact of pesticides on Canadian wi
Page 23 and 24: investigated further. For example,
Page 25 and 26: Conclusions The subject of this vol
Page 27 and 28: Jusoh Mamat, M.; Anas, A.N.; Heong,
Page 29 and 30: Health-risk assessment of pesticide
Page 31 and 32: especially in the absence of comple
Page 33 and 34: depends largely on external factors
Page 35 and 36: Specific situations may require spe
Page 37 and 38: that the best possible work is done
Page 39 and 40: doses (chronic poisoning) or delaye
Page 41 and 42: Table 1. Poisoning incidents in fou
Page 43 and 44: Pesticide research for public healt
Page 45 and 46: Current pest control practices in T
Page 47 and 48: 800- 400- 200 - 1980 1981 1982 1983
Page 49 and 50: designed 30-40 years ago (Jusoh Mam
Page 51 and 52: and tore easily. One investigation
Page 53 and 54: education, mass-communication tools
Page 55 and 56: Increase and improve training activ
Page 57 and 58: Castaneda, C.P. 1988. Pesticide poi
Page 59 and 60: Ooi, A.C.P.; Heong, K.L.; Lim, B.K.
Page 61 and 62: Investigations into acute pyrethroi
Page 63 and 64: Level of exposure To assess the lev
Page 65: Table 2. Cases of acute pyrethroid
Page 69 and 70: Deltamethrin was detectable in the
Page 71 and 72: pyrethroid poisoning. Therefore, th
Page 73 and 74: Gilliatt, R.W.; Willison, R.G. 1963
Page 75 and 76: Table 1. Value of imported pesticid
Page 77 and 78: Study two Twelve farmers participat
Page 79 and 80: All activities Left hand (73.2) Lef
Page 81 and 82: Acknowledgment- The three studies r
Page 83 and 84: Since the creation of Pakistan in 1
Page 85 and 86: Table 1. Incidents of pesticide poi
Page 87 and 88: Sandu, S.S.; Waters, M.D.; Simmon,
Page 89 and 90: and chlordane. Pest resistance to t
Page 91 and 92: young workers was 15.8%, 6.8%, and
Page 93 and 94: Storage of pesticides Although the
Page 95 and 96: Discussion The lowland regions and
Page 97 and 98: Pulmonary obstructive disease in a
Page 99 and 100: To investigate the presence and mea
Page 101 and 102: Age (years) Table 1. Distribution o
Page 103 and 104: was among paraquat users who smoked
Page 105 and 106: Levin, P.J.; Klaff, L.J.; Rose, A.G
Page 107 and 108: the delta. The total population of
Page 109 and 110: The successive and simultaneous rel
Page 111 and 112: on clinical studies and laboratory
Page 113 and 114: This made the collection of blood s
Page 115 and 116: Table 1. Relation between informati
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analysis, and engaging in various t
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Table 1. Value (million KSH) of pes
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To develop a health-education packa
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Storage site Table 3. Storage of ag
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Table 5. Causes of agrochemical and
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Methods A pilot field survey was un
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Conclusion The practices followed b
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manufactured or formulated locally,
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However, based on individual compla
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Table 4. Acetylcholinesterase activ
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Age did not appear to be an importa
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eactions to the pesticides in occup
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Bowers, M,B.; Goodman, E.; Sim, V.M
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Extent of exposure of farm workers
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Group III consisted of 31 farmers w
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25 - 0 Level of exposure J Group 1,
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Pesticides were stored everywhere c
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Table 2. Concluded. Question Answer
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PART II RELATING PESTICIDE DEVELOPM
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Toxicity Table 1. Requirements and
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Screening Process development Route
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Progress in improving safety Pestic
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type of formulation, and warning pr
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The pyrethroid, cypermethrin, is mo
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Studying the effects of pesticides
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of the risk is a quantitative issue
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egistry could be linked to the lice
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poisoned through mishandling of an
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no documented incident could be fou
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Region Table 3. Use of using pictog
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of fluorinated HDPE because fluorin
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Current initiatives, at the interna
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inding within their jurisdictions.
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Benefits of a hazard auditor From t
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different agencies take to be permi
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industry and of its serving to legi
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Anonymous. 1988a. FAO code of condu
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(Adam 1976; Fraser and Burrill 1979
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in the lower price categories tend
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Anas, N.; Jusoh Mamat, Md.; Heong,
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Zam, A.K. 1980. Bancian pengurusan
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Materials and methods Assessment of
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At the end of each day's operations
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Table 3. Number of garments chafing
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underlines the need to change attit
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Evaluation and management of pestic
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target and react with some crucial
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scientists on a contractual basis,
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pesticides in developing countries
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Regional information resources for
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Table 2. Number of enquiries receiv
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extent of this problem in developin
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Promoting the safe use of pesticide
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pests) is observed. Thus, the "quic
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is one of principal agencies respon
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Pretesting materials in training an
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of costly medical technologies and
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The agricultural sector has by far
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At the community level, the extent
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Neufeld, V. 1989. Community-based m
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Outline for learning module using o
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WHO (World Health Organization). 19
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In the past decade, tremendous effo
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Jiang-Su province Results and discu
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As a result of deregulation, the nu
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Table 3. Proportion of workers usin
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Shih, J.H.; Wu, Z.Q.; Zhang, Y.X.;
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Pesticides and wildlife: a short gu
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Using target-specific products mini
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specifications. Other data are asse
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Formulation-specific concerns The e
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mirex, and chiordecone have been ba
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1984). The base for pesticide granu
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e more stringently reviewed. In Can
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For example, searching for carcasse
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overlooked. In developing countries
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Establish monitoring programs to de
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Grue, C.E.; Fleming, W.J.; Busby, D
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Schafer, E.W., Jr; Brunton, R.B. 19
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Table 1. Prevalence and distributio
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By 1980, resistance to at least one
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tries. Japanese encephalitis has be
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to the targeted larvae of mosquitoe
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The role of the community Many prob
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from locally available sacking mate
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services. The project also includes
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Maxwell, C.A.; Curtis, C.F.; Haji,
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Botanical pesticides: optimizing pe
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neurotoxin but a cytotoxin, cross-r
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MoDuscicide- and pesticide-developm
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A development plan has been identif
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and environmental effects must be d
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Devitt, B.D.; Philogène, B.J.R.; H
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Endod, a potential natural pesticid
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University in Ottawa, and in other
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in the field (Lugt 1981), 137 500 m
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Hutchinson, J.; Dalziel, J.M. 1929.
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Community participation, including
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Acknowledgment- This research has b
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multiplication. The high temperatur
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Because pesticides are required in
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Africa and now East Africa. The suc
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Integrated pest management 1PM may
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to risk crop damage. Close involvem
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Ramos-Ocampo, V.E.; Magallona, E.D.
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esidues on fresh and cooked vegetab
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Grassy strip 108 N Farmer's Experim
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Table 1. Description and efficiency
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Table 3. Cost (PHP) of pest managem
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in the field. These pests were the
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PART V APPENDICES
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Ravindra Fernando, National Poisons
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Frank White, Pan-American Health Or
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ECHO abdominal ultrasonograph EEG e
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URT upper respiratory tract USAID U
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