e-edukacja na świecieintegration and resolution phases of cognitive presence.Where a group-objectivist orientation was appliedto discussions, the same degree of latitude deemedacceptable for initial responses, however, more focusedoutcomes were expected to emerge later in the laterstages of the discussion threads.While cognitive presence is initiated in this frameworkvia the posing of overarching questions (thetriggering event) subsequent events related to thesocial and cognitive presences schema’s are largelydependent upon adequate projection of teaching presence.Specifically, the ability to effectively facilitatediscourse and provide direct instruction appears tobe crucial in moving cognitive presence beyond theexploration phase (Garrison, 2007). As an example,in the exploration process it is common for studentsto have misconceptions or encounter areas in whichthey disagree with their peers. In these instances theinstructor’s expert input is required to help guidestudents toward understanding and resolve disagreementsthrough guided exploration.From a theoretical perspective, such actions are requiredto insure that the curriculum is one of richness,rigor and conversation based iteration (Doll, Fleener,Trueit & St. Julien, 2005). In the face-to-face classroom,similar processes have been highly successful throughcareful crafting of collaborative learning environments(Johnson & Johnson, 1998; Slavin, 1994) in whichstudent and teacher roles are quite similar to thosetheorized in the CoI. However, the increased reflectivityinherent in asynchronous threaded discussionsallows learners to engage the content and their peersat substantively higher cognitive level (Coppola, Hiltz& Rotter, 2004; Swan, Shea, Fredericksen, Pickett, Pelz& Maher, 2000).Instructors for courses surveyed in this studytried to create favorable conditions for the emergenceof optimal discussion based experiences in whichthe three presences could naturally overlap. This isconsistent with the requirements underpinning anonline community of inquiry. This process was notformulaic or prescriptive in nature; rather, from aninstructors’ perspective, it can be considered artfulapplication of grounded theory. The presentationof data that follows provides the findings of afactor analysis in which the tripartite theoreticalconstruct of the CoI framework was confirmed. Anarrative account of the methodology employed isalso provided.Method and ResultsOrdinal responses were scored using the scale(0=Strongly Disagree) to (4=Strongly Agree). Meanresponses for the 34 items ranged from 2.90 to 3.63,with a standard deviation range of 0.66 to 1.04.Collectively, Teaching Presence items yielded a meanscore of 3.34 (s.d. = 0.61). Social Presence items collectivelyyielded a mean score of 3.18 (s.d. = 0.65),and Cognitive Presence items yielded a mean score of3.31 (s.d. = 0.60).Based on the assumptions of the theoretical modeland previous exploratory work, the three presenceswere considered to be distinct but overlapping. Assuch, confirmatory factor analysis, using principalcomponent analysis with obliminal rotation was utilized.A default value =0, was specified in SPSS 15for Direct Obliminal rotation, to limit reasonably thelevel of correlation among the factors.The sample size (n=287) for this study is reasonablyadequate depending on the rule of thumb utilized.The study meets Kass & Tinley’s (1979) recommendationfor 5 to 10 participants per item and Comrey& Lee’s (1992) sample size measure which describes200 as Fair and 300 as Good. The Keyser-Meyer-Olkin(KMO) measure of sampling adequacy is 0.96, suggestingfactor analysis should yield distinct and reliablefactors given the data utilized.Inspection of the scree plot supported the threefactor construct predicted by the theoretical basis ofCoI and previous exploratory research. Specifically,the marked decrease in magnitude of the factors didnot support a framework consisting of more than theanticipated number of factors.Table 1 illustrates the 34 CoI items factor loadings,with the three factors highlighted for interpretability.These results reflect the Pattern Matrix generatedby the previously described principal componentanalysis. In support of this analysis, loadings forthe Structure Matrix differed slightly, however bothoutput matrices support the 3 factor model. Consistentwith the design of the instrument, items 1-13(Teaching Presence) loaded most heavily on Factor1. Items 14-22 (Social Presence) loaded most heavilyon Factor 2. Finally, items 23-34 (Cognitive Presence)loaded most heavily on Factor 3. Cronbach’s Alphayielded internal consistencies equal to 0.94 for TeachingPresence, 0.91 for Social Presence, and 0.95for Cognitive Presence.DiscussionFactor analysis demonstrates the clusteringof sub-elements within the model, verifying thetheoretical structure proposed by Garrison, et. al(2000). The objective of this research was to explicateall three presences and to test the validity andreliability of a measurement tool for the communityof inquiry framework. Creating reliable instrumentsis a critical step in the enhancement of research aroundthis model; without reliability, research resultsusing various measurement tools are not replicable,and replication is the foundation of scientific method.Reliability is estimated for this instrumentthrough internal consistency of correlation amongthe variables. Cronbach’s Alpha measures how well aset of variables (survey items in this case) measuresa single unidimensional construct. In this data set,Cronbach’s Alpha yielded numbers indicative of highinter-correlations leading to internal consistencies:0.94 for Teaching Presence, 0.91 for Social Presence,and 0.95 for Cognitive Presence. The instrument92 e-<strong>mentor</strong> nr 2 (24)
Validating a Measurement Tool of Presence...Table 1. Community of Inquiry Instrument and Factor LoadingsPattern Matrix(a)Component1 2 31. The instructor clearly communicated important course topics. 0.826 0.088 0.0672. The instructor clearly communicated important course goals. 0.877 –0.021 0.0463. The instructor provided clear instructions on how to participate in course learning activities. 0.592 0.246 –0.0354. The instructor clearly communicated important due dates/time frames for learning activities. 0.611 0.078 0.0405. The instructor was helpful in identifying areas of agreement and disagreement on coursetopics that helped me to learn.6. The instructor was helpful in guiding the class towards understanding course topics in a waythat helped me clarify my thinking.7. The instructor helped to keep course participants engaged and participating in productivedialogue.0.579 0.162 –0.1380.575 0.091 –0.2810.633 0.149 –0.1608. The instructor helped keep the course participants on task in a way that helped me to learn. 0.579 0.042 –0.2859. The instructor encouraged course participants to explore new concepts in this course. 0.523 0.099 –0.23310. Instructor actions reinforced the development of a sense of community among courseparticipants.11. The instructor helped to focus discussion on relevant issues in a way that helped me tolearn.12. The instructor provided feedback that helped me understand my strengths and weaknessesrelative to the course’s goals and objectives.0.569 0.174 –0.1760.425 0.146 –0.3740.649 –0.123 –0.20113. The instructor provided feedback in a timely fashion. 0.513 –0.025 –0.10314. Getting to know other course participants gave me a sense of belonging in the course. 0.050 0.619 –0.23315. I was able to form distinct impressions of some course participants. 0.172 0.473 0.01316. Online or web-based communication is an excellent medium for social interaction. –0.181 0.674 –0.22617. I felt comfortable conversing through the online medium. –0.039 0.814 0.01518. I felt comfortable participating in the course discussions. 0.109 0.788 0.00519. I felt comfortable interacting with other course participants. 0.286 0.701 0.03820. I felt comfortable disagreeing with other course participants while still maintaining a senseof trust.0.103 0.620 –0.03421. I felt that my point of view was acknowledged by other course participants. 0.319 0.556 0.02522. Online discussions help me to develop a sense of collaboration. 0.047 0.561 –0.34023. Problems posed increased my interest in course issues. –0.099 0.172 –0.78524. Course activities piqued my curiosity. 0.064 0.070 –0.71225. I felt motivated to explore content related questions. 0.082 –0.031 –0.77026. I utilized a variety of information sources to explore problems posed in this course. 0.078 –0.158 –0.75927. Brainstorming and finding relevant information helped me resolve content relatedquestions.–0.106 0.130 –0.79428. Online discussions were valuable in helping me appreciate different perspectives. –0.096 0.286 –0.69929. Combining new information helped me answer questions raised in course activities. 0.101 0.043 –0.71630. Learning activities helped me construct explanations/solutions. 0.128 0.030 –0.73231. Reflection on course content and discussions helped me understand fundamental conceptsin this class.0.008 0.237 –0.64032. I can describe ways to test and apply the knowledge created in this course. 0.239 –0.097 –0.61933. I have developed solutions to course problems that can be applied in practice. 0.147 0.026 –0.65334. I can apply the knowledge created in this course to my work or other non-class relatedactivities.0.171 –0.041 –0.687Rotation Method: Oblimin with Kaiser Normalization.a. Rotation converged in 12 interactions.kwiecień 2008 93
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