Maclean et al. - 2002 - Rice almanac source book for the most important e

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insects, spiders, and microorganisms. The importance of biological control in rice was dramatically demonstrated in the 1970s, when the indiscriminate use of broad-spectrum insecticides devastated populations of beneficial insects and spiders and led to huge outbreaks of the brown planthopper, which had previously been a minor pest. A rice pest is any organism that causes economic loss in rice production, including arthropods (insects and mites), pathogens (bacteria, fungi, and viruses), weeds, mollusks (snails), and vertebrates (rodents and birds). Some common pests are shown in Table 3. The damage they do ranges from severing stems or killing tissue to competing with the crop for nutrients and sunlight. A recent survey found that rice pests in tropical Asia cause an average yield loss of 37%. Weeds are the most important source of loss: weeds taller than the rice plants caused 23% yield loss and weeds below the canopy 21%. The most damaging diseases are sheath blight, brown spot, and leaf blast, each causing 5–6% loss. The most important insect pests are stem borers, with damage at the reproductive stage causing 2.3% yield loss. Weeds are an almost universal companion of rice in the tropics. In many situations, weed growth is prolific and weeds are a major constraint to crop yield. Weeding is a major production cost, with estimates of 50–150 person-days per hectare required for manual weeding, depending on the number of weedings and type of rice culture. For many farmers, weeding requires the greatest labor input during the agricultural cycle, and labor is often not available when weeds are most damaging to the crop. Upland rice more than any other crop shows the ravages of a lack of proper weeding. Sometimes, when the land is too weedy, the crop is abandoned. The demands of transplanting and manual weeding and increasing shortages of labor have encouraged the move to direct seeding in irrigated and rainfed lowlands. Weeds become a major problem in these systems because rice and weeds emerge at the same time, and weed control by flooding is difficult in seeded rice. Herbicides are being used more to control weeds, and herbicide-resistant weeds and pollution are emerging problems in direct-seeded systems. Table 3. Examples of organisms that may harm or compete with the rice crop. Insect pests Stem borers African rice gall midge Yellow stem borer White stem borer Striped stem borer Dark-headed rice borer Defoliators Rice leaffolders Rice caseworm Leafhoppers Green leafhopper Planthoppers Brown planthopper Whitebacked planthopper Rice bugs Malayan black rice bug Rice grain bug Rodents Rice field rats Orseolia oryzivora (Harris & Gagne) Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker) Scirpophaga innotata (Walker) Chilo suppressalis (Walker) Chilo polychrysus (Meyrick) Cnaphalocrocis medinalis (Guenée) and others Nymphula depunctalis (Guenée) Nephotettix virescens (Distant) N. nigropictus (Stål) N. parvus Ishihara et Kawase N. cincticeps (Uhler) Nilaparvata lugens (Stål) Sogatella furcifera Horvath Scotinophara coarctata (Fabricius) Leptocorisa oratorius (Fabricius) Rattus argentiventer (Rob. & Kloss) R. tanezumi (Temminck) Diseases Viral diseases and their vectors Rice tungro Nephotettix virescens (Distant) N. nigropictus (Stål) Ragged stunt Nilaparvata lugens (Stål) Rice yellow mottle Chaetocnema pulla Chapius Trichispa sericia (Guérin) Bacterial diseases and their causal agents Bacterial blight Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Uyeda ex Ishiyama 1922) Swings et al 1990 Fungal diseases and their causal agents Blast Pyricularia oryzae Cav. Sheath blight Rhizoctonia solani (Thanatephorus cucumeris [Frank] Donk) Weeds Ageratum conyzoides L. Cyperus difformis L. Cyperus iria L. Echinochloa colona (L.) Link Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv. Fimbristylis miliacea (L.) Vahl Monochoria vaginalis (Burm. f.) Presl The rice plant and its ecology 25
Insects attack all parts of the rice plant. Hundreds of species feed on rice, but only a few cause yield loss. The most important and widely distributed pest species are stem borers, leaffolders, planthoppers, and gall midge. Stem borers are chronic pests, found in every field in every season, but generally at low levels. Planthoppers and gall midge usually create localized outbreaks, causing high yield losses in relatively small areas. Biological control by natural enemies plays a critical role in the management of all insect pests. Resistant rice varieties are of importance in the control of planthoppers and gall midge. No strong sources of resistance to stem borers have been found in rice germplasm, although modern semidwarf rice varieties generally have lower levels of stem borer damage than the traditional varieties they replaced. Insecticides are used extensively against planthoppers in temperate areas of Asia, where mass immigration of planthoppers from tropical areas is a frequent problem. Bacterial blight, blast, and sheath blight are the most important diseases of rice and have a worldwide distribution. Three insect-vectored viral diseases are also of importance: tungro in Asia, hoja blanca in South America, and rice yellow mottle in Africa. Bacterial blight and blast have been successfully controlled by resistant varieties for many years. However, the evolution of resistance-breaking strains of these pathogens has necessitated the continuing release of new resistant varieties. Strong sources of resistance for sheath blight have not been identified in rice germplasm. Sheath blight is a particularly important disease in intensive ricegrowing conditions where high levels of nitrogen fertilizer are applied. Integrated pest management Modern approaches to crop protection rely on management rather than control or eradication. In this approach, a pest species is considered a pest only when it reaches numbers that can cause yield reduction. Natural factors—such as natural enemies—that prevent pest populations from increasing are emphasized. Indeed, most organisms inhabiting rice fields are never harmful. In addition, the use of rice cultivars that are resistant to major pest species is encouraged. These cultivars do not need prophylactic treatment to control the insects or diseases to which they are resistant. Using a combination of control tactics instead of relying on just one tactic, such as host-plant resistance or pesticides, and basing the decisions for control on sound economic grounds is called integrated pest management or IPM. Pesticides should be used only as a last resort to bring abnormal pest densities down when crop loss is expected to exceed the cost of treatment. Pesticides are costly to farmers, can disrupt natural biological control, and are damaging to human health and the environment. In Thailand, for example, it is estimated that 40,000 rice farmers suffer from varying degrees of pesticide poisoning every year. In the Philippines, there is a similar high level of poisoning and the overall cost of crop loss from pests is less than the farmers’ resulting health costs. The total extra costs of pesticide use in Thailand, including health, monitoring, research, regulation, and extension, amount to $128 million per year. Environmental effects are also serious in Thailand, where pesticide residues are found in nearly all samples of soils, river sediment, fish, and shellfish. One survey found organophosphorus insecticide residues in three-quarters of tangerine samples and one-third of all vegetable samples. Farmer education is a central feature of IPM, and various approaches have been employed. Many countries have implemented “farmer field schools,” which entail season-long weekly meetings in which farmers learn about the value of natural enemies and other aspects of growing a healthy crop. Another approach is the mass communication of “simple rules” to farmers. A campaign to encourage farmers to experiment in eliminating early season insecticide applications has been very successful in Vietnam and is now being attempted in Thailand. The campaign used billboards, cartoon characters, information handouts, and humorous radio programs; it reduced rice farmers’ insecticide use by an estimated 70% and the proportion of farmers believing that insecticides bring higher yields fell from more than 80% to just 13%. Landscape manipulation is a new approach to IPM. The concept of using alterations to the rice field and its surrounding areas involves the roles of bordering vegetation and levees, and 26 Rice almanac
Page 2 and 3: Third Edition Source Book for the M
Page 4 and 5: Contents Foreword v Acknowledgments
Page 6 and 7: Foreword The first edition of the R
Page 8 and 9: The facts of rice Production Rice f
Page 10 and 11: Transplanting is the planting of 1-
Page 12 and 13: Ecogeographic differentiation Indic
Page 14 and 15: Table 3. World rice area, yield, an
Page 16 and 17: from working on these farms. In the
Page 18 and 19: The rice plant and its ecology Morp
Page 20 and 21: Flag leaf blade Axis Spikelet (flor
Page 22 and 23: Table 1. Typical profile of a flood
Page 24 and 25: Korea 8 CHINA 8 5 6 Japan 5 PAKISTA
Page 26 and 27: growth duration (around 100 d), gre
Page 28 and 29: and high levels of exchangeable Al.
Page 30 and 31: In these environments, rice yields
Page 34 and 35: Predator movements between habitats
Page 36 and 37: Wolf spiders feed on a range of ins
Page 38 and 39: terraces of the northern Philippine
Page 40 and 41: precursors of vitamin A—beta-caro
Page 42 and 43: Hybrid breeding has also begun with
Page 44 and 45: UV radiation effects UV-B radiation
Page 46 and 47: year, was actually less than 19 mil
Page 48 and 49: herbicide was present, these select
Page 50 and 51: 2. Water-limited production. 3. Wat
Page 52 and 53: tive mechanisms of the three intern
Page 54 and 55: Integrated Natural Resource Managem
Page 56 and 57: evaluate prototype technologies for
Page 58 and 59: eaches of river systems, in which a
Page 60 and 61: to be combined in a coherent and co
Page 62 and 63: natural resource base. To fulfill t
Page 64 and 65: objectives are to focus rice-sector
Page 66 and 67: Drying rice in southern Vietnam. sc
Page 68 and 69: Table 1. Production and consumption
Page 70 and 71: Table 3. Population growth versus r
Page 72 and 73: Table 4. Comparison of domestic ric
Page 74 and 75: Rice in Europe and the Mediterranea
Page 76 and 77: flooding the rice field to stimulat
Page 78 and 79: Rice in North America Rice in North
Page 80 and 81: Large-scale mechanized rice farmers
Page 82 and 83:
Rice in Latin America and the Carib
Page 84 and 85:
Experimental rice plots in Uruguay.
Page 86 and 87:
Table 1. Production, consumption, a
Page 88 and 89:
occur only by shifting out of other
Page 90 and 91:
The top 10 rice-producing countries
Page 92 and 93:
eastern, and south-central areas, w
Page 94 and 95:
Percent 100 Index (1966 = 100) 500
Page 96 and 97:
The Rajasthan desert extending west
Page 98 and 99:
Percent 100 Index (1966 = 100) 500
Page 100 and 101:
malnutrition among children age 2-5
Page 102 and 103:
Percent 100 Index (1966 = 100) 500
Page 104 and 105:
Recent developments in the rice sec
Page 106 and 107:
Percent 100 Index (1966 = 100) 500
Page 108 and 109:
Page 110 and 111:
Percent 100 Index (1966 = 100) 500
Page 112 and 113:
in 1999 and grew at 0.9%/yr during
Page 114 and 115:
Percent 100 Index (1966 = 100) 500
Page 116 and 117:
Page 118 and 119:
Percent 100 Index (1966 = 100) 500
Page 120 and 121:
country. This is because rice has e
Page 122 and 123:
Percent 100 Index (1966 = 100) 500
Page 124 and 125:
incidence of malnutrition among chi
Page 126 and 127:
Percent 100 Index (1966 = 100) 500
Page 128 and 129:
consumption of cassava. Rice suppli
Page 130 and 131:
Percent 100 Index (1966 = 100) 500
Page 132 and 133:
AFGHANISTAN is a landlocked country
Page 134 and 135:
ARGENTINA extends down the Atlantic
Page 136 and 137:
The island continent of AUSTRALIA i
Page 138 and 139:
BHUTAN, surrounded by India and Chi
Page 140 and 141:
BOLIVIA is a landlocked country of
Page 142 and 143:
BURKINA FASO, previously Upper Volt
Page 144 and 145:
CAMBODIA lies between 10° and 15°
Page 146 and 147:
CAMEROON is a West African nation b
Page 148 and 149:
The Republic of CHAD is a landlocke
Page 150 and 151:
COLOMBIA faces both the Pacific Oce
Page 152 and 153:
The Democratic Republic of the CONG
Page 154 and 155:
CÔTE D’IVOIRE is centrally locat
Page 156 and 157:
CUBA is the main island of the Cuba
Page 158 and 159:
The DOMINICAN REPUBLIC occupies an
Page 160 and 161:
ECUADOR, on the tropical Pacific co
Page 162 and 163:
EGYPT, a large nation of 1 million
Page 164 and 165:
FRANCE, in western Europe, consists
Page 166 and 167:
The GAMBIA is a very small tropical
Page 168 and 169:
The Republic of GHANA, a small (240
Page 170 and 171:
GREECE, in the eastern Mediterranea
Page 172 and 173:
GUINEA is a populous country (popul
Page 174 and 175:
GUINEA BISSAU is a tiny (36,000 km
Page 176 and 177:
GUYANA, a small country, with 215,0
Page 178 and 179:
IRAN is a Middle Eastern country bo
Page 180 and 181:
ITALY is the main rice-producing co
Page 182 and 183:
KOREA DPR occupies the northern par
Page 184 and 185:
REPUBLIC OF KOREA, occupying the so
Page 186 and 187:
Lao PDR is an elongated, landlocked
Page 188 and 189:
LIBERIA, whose coast is known as th
Page 190 and 191:
MADAGASCAR, a large island east of
Page 192 and 193:
MALAYSIA consists of a peninsula, b
Page 194 and 195:
MALI, one of the larger West Africa
Page 196 and 197:
MAURITANIA is a large West African
Page 198 and 199:
MEXICO, at the southern end of Nort
Page 200 and 201:
MOZAMBIQUE extends nearly 2,500 km
Page 202 and 203:
NEPAL is a small (141,000 km 2 ) co
Page 204 and 205:
NICARAGUA, a small country of 130,0
Page 206 and 207:
NIGER is one of the larger Central
Page 208 and 209:
NIGERIA is the most populous countr
Page 210 and 211:
PAKISTAN, a South Asian country fac
Page 212 and 213:
PARAGUAY, a relatively small landlo
Page 214 and 215:
PERU faces the Pacific Ocean on the
Page 216 and 217:
PORTUGAL, the westernmost country o
Page 218 and 219:
The RUSSIAN FEDERATION in northern
Page 220 and 221:
SENEGAL is a West African country f
Page 222 and 223:
SIERRA LEONE, between Guinea and Li
Page 224 and 225:
SPAIN, in southwestern Europe, has
Page 226 and 227:
SRI LANKA, a small island at the so
Page 228 and 229:
SURINAME is a small Latin American
Page 230 and 231:
TANZANIA is a large country between
Page 232 and 233:
TURKEY, a diverse land of 780,000 k
Page 234 and 235:
The UNITED STATES, occupying the ce
Page 236 and 237:
URUGUAY, a relatively small South A
Page 238 and 239:
VENEZUELA forms part of the norther
Page 240 and 241:
Rice-related databases Inquiries ca
Page 242 and 243:
7. Name: RICE ECOSYSTEMS Location:
Page 244 and 245:
22. Name: NURSERIES Location: CIAT
Page 246 and 247:
37. Name: PERIO Location: WARDA Lib
Page 248 and 249:
52. Name: IR64 MUTANT DATABASE Loca
Page 250 and 251:
India Indonesia Japan 1 quintal = 1
Page 252 and 253:
Egypt Ghana Guyana Malawi Mexico Pa
Page 254 and 255:
Rice facts Freshwater resources per
Page 256 and 257:
Rice facts RICE PRODUCTION Selected
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