Developmental psychology.pdf

Perception and Consciousness
16S
Techniques in Meditation In the general approach, the individual seeks some quiet
setting and assumes a comfortable posture, usually a sitting or lying position. The person
then attempts to shut out the external world insofar as possible, which is usually
accomplished by thinking about some simple event, such as a candle, breathing, or a
soft sound. Overall, the intent is to exclude the external world and to observe one's
own shifting thoughts, chiefly by intense concentration and complete relaxation in the
rest of the body. Altered consciousness is attained by being as relaxed as possible, yet
fully awake.
Each of the various types of meditation involves some special techniques as
well. In transcendental meditation, the individual induces the altered awareness by silently
repeating a special syllable or sound, called a mantra, over and over again. This
sound is usually kept secret, for otherwise it presumably loses its personal significance.
Any one of a wide variety of simple, pleasant sounds might serve this purpose, if it
provides an adequate focus for the individual's attention (Benson, 1975).
In Zen Buddhism people become especially aware of their breathing. Sometimes
they even count their breaths. In traditional yoga, meditators concentrate upon
breathing and engage in special stretching exercises at the same time. Sometimes they
also gaze intently upon a fixed visual stimulus (Figure 6.18).
All of these techniques involve the features of perception that were emphasized
at the outset of this chapter. First, there is the process of attending, significantly
narrowed in these cases by focusing upon a specific stimulus. Second, there is the phenomenon
of set, in which the individual has the expectation of an altered consciousness
as he or she undertakes this activity.
Victor had his own wondrous method of achieving detachment from his newly
imposed civilization, and it suggested both these characteristics of perception. The moon
was the focus of his attention—perhaps evoking some mantra—leaving him transfixed.
And perhaps there was significance in the silent scene before him. Maybe it gave him
some sort of expectation, or set, for achieving tranquility. In any case, Victor's watchful
physician concluded that it would have been both useless and inhuman to oppose this
regular contemplative habit in the boy (Itard, 1894).
Figure 6.18
Meditation. The style depends upon
the individual, as well as the
particular technique he has adopted.
Outcomes of Meditation Meditation is largely an Eastern phenomenon, with roots
in Eastern religions, and shortly after it was introduced to the Western world on a wide
scale, about 20 years ago, claims of every imaginable sort were made. Meditation would
reduce all sorts of mental and physical ailments: anxiety, heart attack, phobia, drug
and alcohol abuse, psychiatric symptoms, insomnia, and high blood pressure. It would
augment desirable qualities: self-esteem, personal awareness, self-control, creativity,
empathy, intelligence, and self-actualization (Walsh, 1979). It was also suggested that
it would result in paranormal abilities, by which practitioners could know the thoughts
of others, predict the future, and accomplish extraordinary physical feats.
Successful research demonstrating these outcomes is not an easy task. In the
first place, it is very difficult to establish adequate control groups, for the motivation
to undertake meditation may be a significant factor in achieving positive results. It is
also difficult to measure gains in creativity, self-actualization, confidence, and other
abstract qualities. In fact, when negative results have been obtained, investigators have
pointed out that the most commonly used psychological measures may not be sufficiently
sensitive to detect the very subtle shifts in perception and awareness claimed
for meditation (Walsh, 1979).
Certain physiological changes can be readily assessed, however, such as heart
rate, respiration, blood chemistry, and brain waves. In one instance, subjects who had
been meditating for approximately two years were examined in these ways, and marked
reductions in oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide production, and blood lactate concentrations
were observed. There was also evidence of slower EEG patterns, with alpha
waves predominating (Wallace & Benson, 1972). Th&latter finding is one of the most
commonly reported accompaniments of meditation, influenced partly by the amount
of practice that one has had in this experience.