Developmental psychology.pdf

Investigating Behavior 51
In science it is often necessary to make inferences about events that cannot
be observed directly. In physics the structure of the nucleus is inferred from collision
experiments; in chemistry, inferences are made about reactivity. In medicine the virus
allegedly responsible for the common cold has not yet been identified, but its presence
is inferred. Medical scientists have adopted an "as if" attitude; they investigate the
cold symptoms as if a virus has caused them. The use of inference has limitations because
the investigator has ventured beyond the observable facts, but it is indispensable
in science. Without this procedure some major questions about humanity, including
the nature of dreams, would be beyond the realm of research.
No one has observed another person's dream, but dreams are not excluded
from psychological research. Instead, researchers depend on persons' reports of dreams,
make inferences about dreams and, as we have seen, study many other aspects of the
dreaming state besides the sequence of nightly images.
Use of Theory Psychologists observe the facts and make inferences from these facts.
This process of observing and speculating about facts occurs in all areas of psychology,
and it is the basis of theory construction. A theory is a set of inferences and principles
with explanatory value. It suggests how various facts are related to one another, for
facts are most useful in a particular context.
There are several theories about the meaning of dreams, one of which was
considered earlier. The psychoanalytic or Freudian theory states that a dream is a disguised
expression of some unconscious conflict, usually dating from the dreamer's
childhood. The approach of another psychoanalyst, Carl Gustav Jung, states that the
dream is not a mask but a mirror, reflecting the dreamer's concerns with facets of
herself, usually in current circumstances. The Freudian view emphasizes the past; the
Jungian view does not. One pertains to the unconscious; the other holds that all kinds
of awareness can be found in the study of dreams (Figure 2.13).
Which theory is correct? We do not know, for if a theory were demonstrated
to be clearly correct or incorrect, it would no longer be a theory. Researchers constantly
evaluate the plausibility of theories, conducting experiments to test them and to compare
them, but even when proof is impossible, theories may serve to integrate previous
findings and to stimulate further research. Theory functions as a guide to the discovery
and interpretation of facts rather than as proof of one view or another. The subjective
nature of many dream interpretations, furthermore, has prompted some researchers
to study more objective phenomena, such as the physiology of the dreaming state.
Value of Theory The value of theory is a point of disagreement among psychologists
and other scientists. Some, like Sigmund Freud, contend that it plays an indispensable
role in explaining diverse data and giving direction to scientific inquiry. Others, such
as B. F. Skinner, argue that theory may impede advancement. It may prompt biases
among investigators; it may prevent them from seeipg the facts; and it may encourage
research in nonproductive directions. A scientific theory, therefore, is judged along these
lines. Does it define problems that can be approached by scientific methods? Do the
investigations yield objective data? Can the theory explain these results in a consistent,
parsimonious manner?
Psychoanalysis was presented with relatively little empirical support, but Freud
was more systematic in dream interpretation than many people realize. He often rejected
public requests for dream interpretations, insisting upon background data from
the dreamer. An interpretation without such information, Freud said, tells us only about
the person who interprets the dream.
What is the background of the author of the dream log, who dreamed about
her mother's head falling off, red blood cells, and bursting bones? Recently her mother
was found to have bone cancer, and several operations had been necessary to relieve
the increased pressure on her bones. Just before January 12, the dreamer had read an
article on hematology, and she wondered how her mother's bones, if they disintegrated
further, could manufacture red blood cells.
Figure 2.13
Carl Gustav Jung. An early follower
of Freud, later they came to sharp
disagreements on several topics
including Freud's theory of dreams.