Developmental psychology.pdf

192 Learning and Information Processing
The difference between our present society and the one Skinner proposes is
that the control should be more carefully planned, rather than springing up haphazardly
from the self-interests and political successes of many different people. The evolution
of our present culture is the result of a massive but prescientific effort at
controlling ourselves. As Skinner has said, we see what humanity under these circumstances
has made of itself, but we have not yet discovered what scientific human beings,
using a behavioral technology, can make of themselves (Skinner, 1971; 1984).
Many who disagree emphasize that the causes of behavior lie within the organism
rather than in the environment. They argue that a person who works tenaciously
at a task without success has willpower rather than a history of intermittent
reinforcement. Operant conditioning divests the individual of dignity and is an encroachment
on freedom. Skinner is aware of these reactions, as reflected in the title of
his book, which stresses that we must look beyond such widely used concepts as dignity
and freedom.
LEARNING COMPLEX RESPONSES
Among others who disagree, Skinner's view is not considered subversive or dangerous
but rather impractical. Operant conditioning, these opponents argue, does not apply
to complex human behavior; Skinner's principles, if they are a plausible interpretation
of basic habits, are insufficient to account for the broad range of human behavior (Burton,
1984). In response, Skinner and his followers point to further applications of operant
principles, to which we now turn.
Concept of Chaining
A moment's reflection shows that human behavior does not occur in separate segments,
as just described, but in a more or less continuous flow. A batter hits the ball, runs
down the baseline, touches first base, and watches the coach for further signals, all in
a rapid, integrated sequence. Similarly, the driver of an automobile emits a sequence
of intricately interconnected behaviors, and these acts cannot occur in a random order.
In fact, except for minor variations, only one sequence will achieve the goal. This sequence,
in which each response depends upon the preceding response, is known as a
behavior chain or chaining, according to Skinner.
Cues in Chaining In a behavior chain each response produces an outcome that serves
two purposes. It constitutes reinforcement, usually secondary, for that response, and
it also serves as a stimulus or cue for the next response in the chain. Thus the driver
of an automobile reaches into her pocket and withdraws a set of keys. This outcome,
having the keys in hand, constitutes reinforcement for the act of putting the hand into
the pocket, and it also serves as a stimulus for using the key in the door, which is the
next act in the sequence. Turning the key produces another outcome, the click of the
lock, which constitutes reinforcement because the door now can be opened, and it also
serves as the cue to operate the door handle, the next important act in the chain.
Similarly, opening the door is reinforced because the car can be entered, and the open
door is also the stimulus for making the entrance. Climbing into the car is reinforced
because the individual gains access to the ignition, and the ignition cylinder is a cue
to insert the key to start the engine, and so forth.
Each new condition in such a sequence is termed a response-produced cue because
it arises from the prior response and also serves as a cue for the next response
in the chain. In terms of operant conditioning, such a cue is a discriminative stimulus
(SD).