Developmental psychology.pdf

Cognition and Language 207
Occasionally a single sound takes on meaning, as when the chimpanzee Washoe
emitted the cry "Oh, oh, oh, oh," which was roughly equivalent to no. Human beings
may vocalize "mmmm," signifying contentment or agreement, and the article a means
one. In these instances the phoneme functions as a morpheme, which is the smallest
language unit with a distinct and separate meaning.
A morpheme is usually composed of several phonemes. The word animal, which
has a separate and distinct meaning, is a morpheme, and it includes half a dozen different
sounds. The word train is a morpheme. The word trainer has two morphemes;
there is the verb and also the suffix er, signifying an agent. Morphemes are words,
coherent parts of words, and sometimes small combinations of words.
When morphemes are arranged in appropriate ways to form phrases, clauses,
and sentences, the outcome is known as syntax. Syntax is one aspect of grammar, but
it is not concerned with pronunciation or correctness of word choice. It is chiefly a
matter of sequence. It is concerned with the ways in which words and series of words
are combined into language.
The importance of syntax is illustrated in this improbable English sequence:
"Furiously sleep ideas green colorless." The word furiously is unlikely to be followed
by sleep, which is unlikely to be followed by ideas, and so forth. Even the opposite
sequence is improbable. Colorless is unlikely to be followed by green, which is unlikely
tCKbe followed by ideas, and so forth. Yet the second expression is considerably closer
to a meaningful English statement than is the first: "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously"
(Chomsky, 1957). Thus we see that the organization among a group of words,
or syntax, contributes significantly to the overall meaning.
To summarize, the basic elements of any language are single sounds called
phonemes, which are combined to form small units of meaning, known as morphemes.
These expressions are then organized according to certain rules, or syntax, to form still
larger units.
Problem of Meaning Sophisticated language includes two additional features that
go beyond the formal structure. These are semantics and pragmatics, which pertain
to language in a particular culture. They concern the ways in which language is related
to other aspects of the society. They are therefore of lesser importance in the present
context.
We can note in passing that semantics concerns meaning in a broad sense. It
involves the full range of rules and cust6ms that pertain to meaning. When a breakdown
in communication occurs, it may be attributed to "a problem in semantics," which
implies that something went wrong apart from phonemes, morphemes, and syntax.
Words carry two types of meanings, denotative and connotative. The denotative
meaning points to something; it indicates something specific. The denotative
meaning of the word chimpanzee is much the same for all of us—a hairy primate with
upright posture. The semantic system is concerned largely with these denotative meanings.
The connotative meaning involves abstract qualities, often with emotional implications.
In its connotative meaning, the word ape implies a coarse, clumsy person—
someone with poor manners and lacking in coordination. Connotative meaning concerns
the experience people have with certain words—the associations words bring to
mind, such as feelings of respect or disdain, pleasure or disgust (Goodenough, 1981).
The issue of pragmatics concerns the relations between language and its users.
It deals with the work that language does in a particular situation, rather than referential
meaning, apart from context. The person referred to as an ape perhaps becomes
indignant and responds by saying, "Who me?" Or the person retorts: "You could not
be referring to yours truly!" The choice of the word me or yours truly is a question of
pragmatics, which involves language at the interpersonal level.