Developmental psychology.pdf

280 Learning and Information Processing
Summary
Social Learning Theory
1. According to social learning theory, the most effective instructional method
occurs when the learner observes a model. Intentionally or otherwise, the
teacher serves as a model, and research has shown that modeling is effective
even when there is no immediate reinforcement for the observer.
2. Research also indicates that violence on television fosters aggressive
behavior in young children. Television is a powerful tool for influencing
human thought and action; it should provide models who demonstrate
socially constructive behavior.
Instructional Strategies
3. In the programmed approach, learning is structured in a step-by-step
sequence, called the method of approximations, and various schedules of
reinforcement are used. The objectives are clearly specified and the learner
usually receives immediate reinforcement for each increment of progress.
4. In the discovery method, the learners are encouraged to try to identify the
basic principles themselves. Learning with understanding is stressed, and it
is said that this method of learning develops critical thinking.
5. Both approaches have advantages and disadvantages, and they represent
extreme positions on a continuum of structure. Completely unstructured
learning sometimes places the student in an ambiguous situation, not
knowing what to do or how to do it. Completely structured learning may
make the learner overly dependent on procedures established by others, and
it does not reflect the conditions of daily life. Hence eclecticism prevails.
Both procedures are commonly used for diverse purposes in the
instructional process.
Managing Learning Activities
6. The three major components of the instructional situation are objectives,
practice activities, and evaluation. Objectives identify what the student
should be able to do as a result of the learning experience, and they can be
specified at various levels of difficulty. They concern learning in three
domains: cognitive, motor, and affective.
7. In practice sessions, distributed learning is more efficient than massed
learning because rest periods decrease fatigue, raise motivation, and
improve recall. Recitation is more efficient than merely reading because it
requires active participation and provides knowledge of results. In using
whole or part learning, the nature of the task is an important factor, and a
flexible plan may be most appropriate. Feedback adds to the efficiency of
learning because it motivates the learner and facilitates repetition of the
correct response.
8. Learning must be inferred from performance. It is evaluated by various
tests, and then the results are commonly displayed as performance curves.
They must be interpreted with caution, however, for a decline in
performance or an intermediate plateau does not necessarily reflect lack of
learning.
Motivation and Transfer
9. The facilitating effect of rewards is widely acknowledged, although it varies
with the way in which the reward is perceived. The effects of punishment
are less predictable. Severe or inconsistent punishment may lead to unstable
behavior and even fixation of the punished response, as well as undesirable
side effects. Punishment is most effective when it is immediate, informative,
and used in combination with rewards.