Developmental psychology.pdf

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Memory Rote Mnembiifc'fievices iMRn&t child has learned to walk alone. Benjamin P. Bum • tVjukebtfll and totisfeft ip'his fetter reading Sopbocfce' -, ' Tyrmnus nt ilte original Greek Toys haS running around were «Я . -' itd of IS menth», altfaougfa hsfearieWss and minor «$нпан$ -. , "^. св1Ятdied.'Every day hw father read alnud three leugt^pes **j ';,..^.'• 'sayesja iambic pentameter, and every thieeinoittlisiie^aflged to three new №&HMU/ ' 1 Л" V уев»оИ. Afe6get5er, this 45>Д08 Grteft sylkkbtes, testimony to his
232 Learning and Information Processing The father's interest was twofold: to find out how early in human life memories could be established and to discover how long they would last. Since no other member of Benjamin's family had any knowledge of Greek, these lessons would provide a suitable task. Benjamin could be tested later without any contaminating influences. We approach the topic of memory with Benjamin in mind, but we let him run away for a time, until he grows old enough to provide an interesting test of his father's questions. First, we consider the memory trace. Underlying every memory must be some sort of change within the body. What is the nature of this change? How does it function? How do we measure it? Next, we consider the stages or processes by which we develop memories, which involve thinking and learning. Afterward, we consider the opposite issue, the processes that underlie forgetting. Remembering and forgetting are opposite sides of the same question, inextricably related. To conclude the chapter we provide a series of suggestions for successful memorizing. THE MEMORY TRACE Memory must be based on some change within the individual. Sometimes called a memory trace or engram, this change is presumed to lie in the nervous system and to represent the physiological basis of memory. We do not yet know with certainty what structures or functions are modified, but some psychologists prefer to speculate, typically focusing upon the possible biochemical bases of memory. Others make no assumptions. Instead, they measure the trace indirectly, focusing upon behavioral measures. Physiological Basis Through a continuing series of studies, scientists have discovered that the basic genetic substance in all human beings is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Molecules of DNA are responsible for "genetic memory" in the sense of transmitting biologically inborn characteristics across the generations. They account for our heredity (Plate 9). These DNA molecules, in turn, manufacture a substance called ribonucleic acid (RNA), which is particularly influential in cell development. On this basis of controlling the function of living cells, RNA is considered by many investigators to be at least intricately involved in the individual memory of every living organism (Hyden, 1967). Administration of a substance that increases the manufacture of RNA seems to result in improved memory in lower animals. Use of another substance, which destroys RNA, results in poorer memory. Furthermore, RNA influences the production of protein, which seems to bear a relationship to remembering and forgetting. We can conclude that RNA at least plays a role in memory, even though it may not be the ultimate memory molecule. Early investigations of RNA as the memory molecule show the hope and frustration in this work. In these experiments, it was demonstrated that administering an electric shock to tiny flatworms caused a contraction of their bodies, whereas a bright light produced no response. After these two stimuli were paired for many trials, the animals contracted to the light alone. Somehow they retained this conditioning experience (Thompson & McConnell, 1955). Since these worms are cannibalistic, trained worms later were fed to untrained worms, and the latter were found to learn the original conditioning task more readily than control subjects, which devoured only untrained worms. In other experiments, a substance containing RNA was extracted from the tissues of the trained worms and injected into their untrained brethren. Again, the worms to which RNA had been transferred learned to contract to the light alone more rapidly than did control subjects,
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MUNN'S NTRODUCTION TO FERNALD/FERNA
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INTRODUCTION TO Psychology L. DODGE
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List of Figures xv Acknowledgments
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viii Contents Part 2 The Human Orga
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Contents Part 4 Learning and Inform
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xii Contents Part 6 Individual Diff
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xiv Contents Part 8 Psychology and
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xvi List of Figures Figure 8.1 Lana
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As the reader Purely will decide, t
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A Journey
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Prologue Title Topic Source /. Psyc
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Prologue xxvii Like the response pa
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INTRODUCTION TO Psychology
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Background and Methods At mealtime
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Background and Methods Figure 1.2 T
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10 Background and Methods 'One spri
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12 Background and Methods It should
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14 Background and Methods James and
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16 Background and Methods Figure 1.
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22 Background and Methods 'Sitting
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24 Background and Methods Each of t
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26 Background and Methods Emergence
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30 Background and Methods "My mothe
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32 Background and Methods Collectin
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34 Background and Methods A related
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38 Background and Methods *l was on
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40 Background and Methods CLINICAL
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42 Background and Methods Psycholog
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Background and Methods Another trou
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48 Background and Methods When the
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50 Background and Methods RESEARCH
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52 Background and Methods Prior to
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54 Background and Methods Survey Me
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60 The Human Organism The study of
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62 The Human Organism Figure 3.4 In
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64 The Human Organism Figure 3.7 De
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66 The Human Organism The increased
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68 The Human Organism This totally
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Plate 2 Eight-Week-Old Fetus. In ju
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70 The Human Organism Sensorimotor
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72 The Human Organism The deprivati
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74 The Human Organism Figure 3.13 I
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76 The Human Organism The qualifica
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78 The Human Organism Figure 3.15 D
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80 The Human Organism Figure 3.17 A
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82 The Human Organism Transfer Grou
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84 The Human Organism INDIVIDUAL DI
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86 The Human Organism Heredity and
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fftgtepoiitfHf ДОИ* * L» i-'"-,
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Physiology and Behavior 91 Figure 4
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Physiology and Behavior 93 —f Res
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Physiology and Behavior 95 Figure 4
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Physiology and Behavior 97 Receptor
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Physiology and Behavior 99 Motor Pr
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Physiology and Behavior 101 Nonsens
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.,••. ь • • : • ; •
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Physiology and Behavior 105 On this
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Physiology and Behavior 107 Lung He
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Physiology and Behavior 109 part of
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Physiology and Behavior 111 One fun
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Physiology and Behavior 113 Figure
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Physiology and Behavior 115 Subcort
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•'л§ а- 1 : '•:£•* a i'A
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122 Modes of Awareness In this chap
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124 Modes of Awareness *James Bond
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126 Modes of Awareness TRADITIONAL
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128 Modes of Awareness Figure 5.5 T
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130 Modes of Awareness *l knew a gu
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132 Modes of Awareness Figure 5.8 C
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Plate 6 Retinal Color Zones. This c
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134 Modes of Awareness whereas the
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136 Modes of Awareness -J- Hair Fre
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138 Modes of Awareness Figure 5.13
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140 Modes of Awareness 'I've often
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142 Modes of Awareness the light ea
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144 Modes of Awareness 5. The stimu
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K^^rT, •. -Y - w* 7 r< - ч. 3i>.
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148 Modes of Awareness The boy's ar
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150 Modes of Awareness Stimulus Cha
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152 Modes of Awareness Figure 6.3 I
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1S4 Modes of Awareness L \ С Figur
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156 Modes of Awareness MAKING AN IN
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158 Modes of Awareness 'When I was
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160 Modes of Awareness The same sor
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164 Modes of Awareness Achieving an
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166 Modes of Awareness Altogether,
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170 Modes of Awareness A most impor
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172 Modes of Awareness 7. An illusi
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,_•,„-:..&и';#&*•;,. 77:^7
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7 Learning as Conditioning CLASSICA
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Learning as Conditioning 179 Classi
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Page 218 and 219: Learning as Conditioning 185 Pavlov
Page 220 and 221: Learning as Conditioning 187 A food
Page 222 and 223: Learning as Conditioning 189 hours,
Page 224 and 225: Learning as Conditioning 191 1,000
Page 226 and 227: Learning as Conditioning 193 Extern
Page 228 and 229: Learning as Conditioning 195 The or
Page 230 and 231: Learning as Conditioning 197 This v
Page 232: Learning as Conditioning 199 Critic
Page 235 and 236: 202 Learning and Information Proces
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Page 266 and 267: Memory 233 which in this case were
Page 268 and 269: Memory 235 Reappearance Hypothesis
Page 270 and 271: Memory 237 Method of Recognition If
Page 272 and 273: Memory 239 Images in the Sensjry Sy
Page 274 and 275: Memory 241 In this sense Harold Bur
Page 276 and 277: Memory 243 Depth of processing is n
Page 278 and 279: Plate 9 Structure of DNA. The disco
Page 280 and 281: Memory 245 Figure 9.10 Decay Theory
Page 282 and 283: Memory 247 Figure 9.12 Interference
Page 284 and 285: Memory 249 Repressive Forgetting Ou
Page 286 and 287: Memory 251 Type of Passage Original
Page 288 and 289: Memory 253 Figure 9.18 Overlearning
Page 290 and 291: Memory 255 Memory trace Physiologic
Page 292 and 293: Memory 257 10. Forgetting apparentl
Page 294 and 295: - " - • ~ and Instruction . p Of
Page 296 and 297: Learning and Instruction 261 After
Page 298 and 299: Learning and Instruction 263 For th
Page 300 and 301: Learning and Instruction 265 Figure
Page 304 and 305: Learning and Instruction 269 1. Stu
Page 306 and 307: Learning and Instruction 271 domain
Page 308 and 309: — Learning and Instruction 273 d>
Page 312 and 313: Learning and Instruction 277 Useful
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Learning and Instruction 279 cube,
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Learning and Instruction 281 10. Th
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d l Robin's Voyage ••-,-й . я
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286 Motivation and Emotion Robin's
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288 Motivation and Emotion Figure 1
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290 Motivation and Emotion Robin al
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292 Motivation and Emotion Species
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296 Motivation and Emotion Method o
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298 Motivation and Emotion Cellular
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300 MotivatiO7i and Emotion *' v
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304 Motivation and Emotion Social I
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306 Motivation and Emotion Critique
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310 Motivation and Emotion 3. As on
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Together i^lf*
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314 Motivation and Emotion Stephen
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316 Motivation and Emotion *We all
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320 Motivation and Emotion 'Last Sa
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322 Motivation and Emotion "This st
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326 Motivation and Emotion of neigh
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328 Motivation and Emotion Here aga
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332 Motivation and Emotion ;...•>
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334 Motivation and Emotion 14 Figur
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338 Motivation and Emotion Summary
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340 Motivation and Emotion Critical
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г -' -'-"i-i-г- • * * • -!*'
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METHODS OF Early Development» Со
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Tests and Measurement 347 Early Dev
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Tests and Measurement 349 Figure 13
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Tests and Measurement 351 1. Will y
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Tests and Measurement 353 General K
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Tests and Measurement 355 Weights H
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Plate11 Testing Spatial Relations A
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1 .•• Tests and Measurement 357
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Tests and Measurement 359 The pisto
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Tests and Measurement 361 Norm-Refe
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Tests and Measurement 363 Evaluatio
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Tests and Measurement 365 Summary M
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Intelligence "tiEMSOHEMENT OFINTELL
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Intelligence 371 Binet's Early Scal
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Intelligence 373 But any complex so
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Intelligence 375 Figure 14.8 Struct
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Intelligence 377 Terman and Goddard
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Intelligence 379 Goddard completely
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Intelligence 381 With regard to phy
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Intelligence 383 ORIGINS OF INTELLI
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Intelligence 385 Figure 14.16 Exami
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Intelligence 387 Both factors are a
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Intelligence 389 CD 8 6.4 6.2 60 I
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Intelligence 391 This commentary, f
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Intelligence 393 8. Surveys have sh
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Personality THEORY OF PSYCHOANALYSI
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Personality 399 Figure 15.2 Fraud i
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Personality 401 Figure 15.4 Imitati
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Personality 403 Jenny's Unconscious
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Personality 405 Figure 15.6 Project
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Personality 407 thus offers greater
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Personality 409 Figure 15.8 A Lette
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Personality 411 LEARNING THEORY Aft
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Personality 413 Vicarious Reinforce
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Personality 415 is a function of S-
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Personality 417 Person-Centered App
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Personality 419 incongruence should
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Plate 15 Adjustment as a Continuous
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Personality 421 This approach somet
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Personality 423 Critical Terms Pers
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Adjustment and Maladjustment 427 PR
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Adjustment and Maladjustment 429 -
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Adjustment and Maladjustment 431 Av
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Adjustment and Maladjustment 433 Ag
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Adjustment and Maladjustment 435 Co
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Adjustment and Maladjustment 437 In
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Adjustment and Maladjustment 439 Fi
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Adjustment and Maladjustment 441 Ac
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Adjustment and Maladjustment 445 Ma
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Adjustment and Maladjustment 447 En
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Adjustment and Maladjustment 451 Si
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Adjustment and Maladjustment 453 13
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" *•. i" 'A *-t) V .c | to his д
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Therapy 457 But alcohol was only an
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Therapy 459 f-V '" ..;••*•:
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Therapy 461 merit, using somewhat d
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Therapy 463 T: "You did. You must h
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Therapy 465 A basic procedure in lo
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Therapy 467 Examination hierarchy 1
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Therapy 469 the food itself. Or may
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Therapy 471 Figure 17.12 Boxing and
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Therapy 473 Figure 17.14 JW's Mood
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Therapy 475 Influence of Drugs Drug
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Therapy 477 Problems in Measuring C
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Therapy 479 The extent to which any
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Therapy 481 2. In person-centered c
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Therapy 483 Suggested Readings Belk
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488 Psychology and Society These pe
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490 Psychology and Society Changing
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492 Psychology and Society Figure 1
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494 Psychology and Society In any r
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496 Psychology and Society INTERPER
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500 Psychology and Society 30 Figur
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506 Psychology and Society 'A situa
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508 Psychology and Society petition
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510 Psychology and Society terror i
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512 Psychology and Society Summary
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518 Psychology and Society This pro
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524 Psychology and Society METHODS
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528 Psychology and Society Row Figu
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530 Psychology and Society Study of
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532 Psychology and Society The quan
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534 Psychology and Society Cross Re
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538 Psychology and Society We begin
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540 Psychology and Society To find
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542 Psychology and Society Another
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544 Psychology and Society LAW AND
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648 Psychology and Society Research
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550 Psychology and Society Rank the
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554 Psychology and Society Architec
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558 Psychology and Society Televisi
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560 Psychology and Society Summary
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•*. -V . |Epiloguer* Psychology i
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Epilogue 565 Figure E.2 Research in
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568 Glossary affective state* A psy
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570 Glossary avoidance-avoidance co
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572 Glossary Clever Hans phenomenon
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574 Glossary consolidation theory A
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576 Glossary dependent variable An
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578 Glossary electroconvulsive ther
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580 Glossary fixed ratio reinforcem
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582 Glossary higher-order condition
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584 Glossary intensity The quantita
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586 Glossary Likert method An attit
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588 Glossary motor Pertaining to mu
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590 Glossary operations In the stru
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592 Glossary phobic disorder A stro
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594 Glossary psychoanalysis A syste
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596 Glossary relative movement in p
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598 Glossary self-reinforcement sch
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600 Glossary special classes An app
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602 Glossary telegraphic utterances
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604 Glossary variable A changeable
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606 References Bahrick, L. E., Walk
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608 References Cappon, D., & Banks,
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610 References Eysenck, H. J., & Ka
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612 References Guilford, J. P. (197
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614 References Jensen, A. R' (1969)
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616 References Limber, J. (1977). L
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618 References Moore, В. S. Underw
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620 References Roethlisberger, F. J
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622 References Skeels, H. M. (1973)
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624 References Van Gogh, V. (1888).
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life -"**. - _ T • is * * 4 = * i
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Credits 629 Chapter 3 Figure 3.4 Fr
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Name Index Aarons. L, 272 Abdel-Hal
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Index 633 Hirvonen. M. D., 295 Hitl
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Index 635 Sladen, W. J. L, 33 Slate
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638 Index California Personality In
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640 Index intelligence quotient (!Q
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642 Index reaction formation, 434 r
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