Developmental psychology.pdf

Glossary 601
study of differences In psychological research,
comparisons among groups, often experimental and
controf groups. The aim is to identify cause-and-effect
conditions.
subcortical structure An organ of the brain which lies
beneath the cortex, between the top of the brain stem
and the cortex. These include the thalamus,
hypothalamus, reticular formation, and many other brain
mechanisms.
subject An individual who participates in an experiment
and whose responses are the dependent variables of
the experiment.
subjective fatigue A need for rest which is caused by
psychological factors, not physical ones; usually caused
by repetition of the same behavior. The fatigue is said to
be subjective when a different response can be
performed readily using the same muscles.
subjective organization In memory, imposing some
organization or scheme on the material to be learned.
When material does not have its own obvious
organization, the learner must create a system for
understanding and retaining it.
subjectivity A condition known only to the individual
concerned; not directly observable by others; private. A
pain is subjective; the person's behavior is response to
pain is objective. See objectivity.
subliminal Below the level of awareness; below the
threshold of stimulation, as when an auditory or visual
presentation is too weak to have an effect or at least
any effect of which the individual is aware. Below the
absolute threshold.
subliminal advertising A message, usually visual or
auditory, presumed to be below the level of awareness,
yet influential. This possibility has been received with
much excitement but as yet little empirical support.
suggestibility viewpoint The view that hypnotic behavior
is almost exclusively the result of suggestion and
motivation in the subject. No special hypnotic state or
"trance" is postulated; it is assumed instead that the
subject's set, or expectation, can produce the behaviors
attributed to the "trance." See dissociation viewpoint.
superego Generally, internal controls or standards. In the
Freudian view, the superego is derived from early
influences and has two parts. The conscience pertains
to ethical and moral behavior; the ego ideal concerns
the individual's aspirations. The superego is one of the
three chief intrapsychic forces in the Freudian view. See
also ego and id.
superordinate goal A goal of two or more groups which
has a higher value than any goal held by only one
group; a common cause deemed more important than
individual causes.
suppression Conscious inhibition of activity, as when
someone suppresses a desire to strike someone else.
Compare with repression, which is unconscious.
surface traits Personality characteristics which are readily
apparent, such as sociability or shyness.
survey method Collection of information from
representative groups of people by use of
questionnaires and interviews.
syllogism A form of deductive reasoning which consists of
a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. All
women are wise; Sarah is a woman; therefore Sarah is
wise.
symbolic information In the structure-of-intellect model,
information which appears in symbolic form, such as
numbers, letters, words, and so forth. This information is
part of the contents dimension.
symbolic model In social learning theory, someone who.
emits a certain behavior yet is not actually present.
Symbolic models typically include the characters in
television, radio, and stories.
sympathetic division The division of the autonomic
system which plays a predominant role in emotion and
which functions in opposition to the parasympathetic
system. When the sympathetic system assumes control,
secretion of adrenalin is accelerated, heartbeat is
accelerated, and stomach secretions are inhibited.
symptom substitution The appearance of a new symptom
as a replacement for one which has been removed
through treatment. This outcome has been a source of
debate among therapists of different orientations.
synapse (sin'-aps) The junction where nerve impulses pass
from one neuron to another.
syndrome (sin'-drom) A group of symptoms which
characterize a particular adjustment, disease, or
disorder.
syntax Referring to the construction of language; the use
of words in various combinations and sequences to form
phrases and sentences.
systematic desensitization A therapeutic method based
upon procedures in classical conditioning. Anxiety
reactions are reduced by gradually increased exposure
to the conditioned stimulus and by training in relaxation.
systems In general, groups of related elements. In the
history of psychology, a way of ordering the facts so
that they have meaning in relation to one another. A
theoretical model which embraces as many relevant
facts as possible and serves as a framework for
obtaining new information. The various schools or
models of psychology, such as behaviorism,
psychoanalysis, humanistic psychology, and cognitive
psychology, are designed to systematize psychological
knowledge and point the way for further research.
Therefore, they are called systems or models of
psychology. In the structure-of-intellect model, this term
refers to an outcome in the products dimension. An
outcome of intellectual activity is the organization of two
or more things in some special way, creating, for
example, a set of postulates or even a theory.
tabes dorsalis (tay'-beez dor-sal'-us) Injury to the dorsal
columns of the spinal cord, ordinarily by syphilis,
resulting in a motor incoordination.
task specialist A group member who assumes
responsibility for determining and achieving the group's
goals. Contrast with social specialist.
teaching machine A device for presenting programmed
instruction. With children, the machine also may
increase motivation to study programmed materials.