Developmental psychology.pdf

Glossary 573
competition A form of social interaction in which the goals
of group members are incompatible. Any given member
can attain his or her own goal only at the expense of
depriving another group member. See cooperation,
individualistic efforts.
complexity In the humanistic view of personality, emphasis
upon the extraordinary capacities of human beings, not
found in other organisms. Human thinking and problem
solving, for example, presumably cannot be fruitfully
understood through the study of animals or solely
through reductionistic studies, in which the whole is
analyzed only in terms of its parts.
compulsion An irresistible urge to perform some act, such
as to steal, to light fires, or to avoid stepping in any
shadows.
computer A device with mechanical and electronic parts
which is capable of manipulating symbols, such as
numbers and words, for a specific purpose.
computer-assisted instruction Use of a computer to
present educational tasks to the student. Often, the
tasks are prepared in the form of programmed learning,
involving a step-by-step sequence. An important
advantage of the computer is that its enormous memory
system and immediate recall can be used to present
material at the appropriate level for a given individual, in
accordance with his or her prior responses.
computer model The use of a computer to simulate
human thinking. The computer processes are examined
to understand the ways in which they represent human
thought; they serve as a means for examining symbolic
processes.
concept An abstract idea or conclusion based on a
generalization from particular instances, such as
"anything burning is hot."
concept attainment The study of concept acquisition in a
controlled setting, often the laboratory, following explicit
training procedures. Usually the concepts are artificial,
contrived only for the purposes of research. See
concept formation.
concept formation The acquisition of concepts in daily
life, often a long process, especially in children. See
concept attainment.
concrete operations According to Piaget, a stage of
development in thinking, occurring approximately
between ages 7 and 11 years, during which the child
becomes capable of reasoning about concrete
situations.
concrete thinking Thinking in terms of particulars, such as
pears, apples, and bananas, in contrast to thinking in
terms of categories, such as fruit. The latter is more
abstract or conceptual thinking.
concurrent validity The extent to which a test may be
used to predict present performance on another task.
conditioned response In classical conditioning, a
response aroused by some stimulus other than that
which naturally produces it, such as salivation in
response to a tone. In operant conditioning, a response
that has become more frequent after being reinforced.
conditioned stimulus A previously neutral stimulus which
acquires the property of eliciting a particular response; it
acquires this capacity through pairing with an
unconditioned stimulus.
conditioning Sometimes used as synonymous with
learning. More specifically, the process through which
conditioned responses are developed. Two major types
are often identified, classical conditioning and operant
conditioning.
cone A receptor in the retina primarily for color vision.
configurationalists Gestalt psychologists, who
emphasized the study of wholes or configurations.
Opposed to the reductionistic viewpoint, which
examines a complex event by studying its smaller
components.
conflict The tension or stress involved when satisfaction of
needs is thwarted by equally attractive or unattractive
alternatives. See approach-approach, avoidanceavoidance,
and approach-avoidance.
congruence In the person-centered approach to
personality, the degree to which an individual's
experience is compatible with his or her concept of self.
See incongruence.
congruity theory A theory of attitude formation and
change emphasizing that shifts in attitude occur in the
direction of achieving greater agreement among a
person's attitudes.
connector neuron Neurons existing in the brain and spinal
' cord which connect sensory, motor, or other connector
neurons. Also called association neuron.
conscience An attitude assumed by the individual when
he or she fails to conform to the moral or ethical ways of
his or her group, or when tempted to behave in other
than the approved ways. In Freudian psychology, part of
the superego; ideals and ideas acquired from the
parents or other significant persons in one's early life.
conscious experience Experience of which the individual
is currently aware, as distinguished from past
experience. Conscious experiences may be considered
as those which the individual can describe, such as
sensory experiences and feelings.
conservation experiment In Piagetian psychology, an
experimental procedure in which the amount of a
substance is not altered; only the form or shape is
changed. The child in the preoperational stage does not
understand that the amount remains constant.
conservative focusing A strategy in concept attainment
in which each attribute of a concept is examined
separately to determine whether it is relevant or
irrelevant. Thus, the subject proceeds slowly, step by
step, to acquire the concept, rather than guessing or
speculating about which characteristics are involved.
consistency principle The desire of the human being to
be consistent, especially with regard to attitudes and
beliefs. Theories of attitude formation and change based
on the consistency principle include balance theory and
congruity theory, which suggest that the individual
seeks to avoid imbalance or incongruity in various
attitudes. See also cognitive dissonance theory.