Developmental psychology.pdf

Adjustment and Maladjustment 433
Aggression and Regression
The man seeking hospital admission, if sufficiently disturbed, might retreat from the
world, showing some form of decreased responsiveness. Or he might strike back, behaving
in an overly aggressive manner.
Aggressive Reactions Some years ago a group of investigators formulated the
frustration-aggression hypothesis, which states that "the occurrence of aggressive
behavior always presupposes the existence of frustration and, contrariwise, that the
existence of frustration always leads to some form of aggression." This aggression is
expressed toward the frustrating barrier or, if that is too dangerous, toward something
less threatening or toward oneself (Dollard, Miller, Doob, Mowrer, & Sears, 1939).
The man at the hospital might become aggressive toward someone who
thwarted him or toward a person who had nothing to do with the problem. Most of us
have acted in such a manner at one time or another, and even experimental animals,
when food is unavailable, are likely to fight and aggress against their cages. These
examples illustrate displaced aggression, in which the tension is discharged onto a less
threatening object, rather than onto the source of frustration, which may be too dangerous
to confront (Figure 16.8).
The frustration-aggression hypothesis has considerable support and also some
limitations. Regarding the first part, that aggression always indicates frustration, we
have already noted that frustration is not the only source of aggression. Aggressive
behavior can be the product of imitation and operant conditioning as well. Concerning
the second part, that frustration always leads to aggression, we have seen also that
frustration may result in fantasy or lethargy, and shortly we shall consider other possibilities.*
The hypothesis, a good working assumption, is not supported in every instance
(Berkowitz, 1974).
Tendency Toward Regression When other responses prove inadequate, we
sometimes engage in regression, meaning that we move backward, repeating behavior
that was satisfying or more appropriate at an earlier stage of development. Following
the birth of a new brother or sister, an older child may revert to crying, baby talk, and
bed-wetting, which obtained satisfaction in the past. This behavior may represent an
effort to regain parental attention.
Such behavior is not limited to children. Husbands sometimes attempt to dominate
their wives, and wives their husbands, by fits of sulking, weeping, and threats
that they will "do away with themselves" if they do not get their way. In everyday
terms, regression is simply a form of childish behavior.
Defense Mechanisms
In response to stress, individuals behave in subdued, aggressive, and regressive ways.
They also behave in ways unknown to them, at least according to psychoanalytic theory.
Actually, the behaviors themselves are not unknown, but the reasons for them
apparently are not evident to the responding individual. These reactions are called
defense mechanisms, a psychoanalytic term referring to subtle methods for defending
against anxiety.
The basic defense mechanism, upon which all others are presumably based,
is repression, which is the unconscious process of excluding unpleasant thoughts from
awareness. It differs from suppression, in which there is a conscious attempt to avoid
certain thoughts or actions. Lists of defense mechanisms are now many and varied,
depending upon the strictness of the definition and one's view of the role of repression
in each instance. In the following discussion, we consider three defense mechanisms
typically regarded as nonintegrative ways of handling an emotionally laden issue.
Figure 16.8
Frustration-Aggression
Hypothesis. This man, frustrated
with the telephone, illustrates the
frustration-aggression hypothesis His
behavior shows direct aggression,
however, not displaced aggression,
for he is attacking the source of
frustration
*My third grade teacher was the
source of several educational
handicaps. Although I tried as hard
as the others. I could not write
neatly and clearly. Yet this old bitch
would continually hold my best
efforts up in front of the class and
come out with something like "Now
isn't this just disgusting?" or
"Guess who this mess belongs
to?" I was quickly lowered to the
"dumb row," a fact which she
continually reminded me of. I spent
the next five years in the "dumb
row" before I was finally able to
prove myself.
I often think about going back
there to wave my 3.4 high school
average and 3.2 college cum in her
face and then give her a good swift
kick.