Developmental psychology.pdf

260 Learning and Information Processing
We consider first social learning theory, which stresses the role of the instructor
or teacher apart from any special methods. The focus is upon the way this person
behaves, as a model for others. Then we turn to instructional strategies, especially
those advocated by the conditioning and cognitive viewpoints. Next, we consider the
management of learning activities, emphasizing the optimal conditions for practice.
Then we conclude the chapter on a more controversial note, examining the persistent
problems of motivation and transfer of training. How can we use rewards and punishment
for motivating the learner? And how can we facilitate learning in new situations,
which is the problem of transfer?
*On my block there is a family
with two little girls about ages four
and nine. They are left to fend for
themselves a great deal of the time,
and the oldest sister, Ann, has
assumed something of a motherrole
over Joanie, the little one. She
often says: "If you don't go home
right now, I'm going to spank you
out here in front of all the kids."
She always uses threats—always
an order is accompanied by a
threat. It wasn't until I was rather
well acquainted with Ann and
Joanie that I had a chance to see
their mother in action. She was
calling both of the girls in at
bedtime and they weren't
responding fast enough. Then out
came: "If you don't come in right
now, I'm going to spank you out
here in front of all the other kids!"
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Apart from the conditioning and cognitive viewpoints considered earlier, another approach
to learning stresses the importance of observing other people. Called social
learning theory because the social context is emphasized, this form of learning is not
confined to cocktail parties and dinner dances, as the name may seem to imply, or even
to learning in the classroom. It can occur in any situation in which other people are
observed. Sometimes it is simply known as observational learning. As the Spanish proverb
says, "El que entre los lobos anda, a aullar se ensena." In English we would say,
"He who walks among the wolves learns to howl."
Concept of Modeling
Think of the time and effort that would be required to learn Spanish pronunciation
simply by receiving an explanation, without any demonstration. Think of the hazard
if you were to learn bullfighting by direct experience rather than by watching a matador.
According to social learning theorists, much of what human beings learn through
direct experience can be learned more quickly and with less danger if it is learned
vicariously, by watching someone else.
That someone else is a model, and the process of reproducing the behavior is
known as modeling. It is largely through modeling, says the social learning theorist,
that children of fearful parents become fearful, children of critical parents become
critical, and children who observe confident adults tend to be confident themselves.
Even children of aggressive parents are likely to become aggressive, for when an adult
punishes aggressive behavior, that person is often demonstrating the very behavior that
the child, when away from the punitive model, probably will imitate.*
Influence of Models In one experiment children three to five years of age were
tested for fear of a dog, and then they were divided into four equal groups on the basis
of fearfulness. Two groups then observed a four-year-old child who showed no fear
whatsoever; he happily patted the dog, scratched it, and fed it when confined alone
with it in a pen. One of these groups observed this model during a party, and the other
group watched the child in a normal atmosphere. There was no model for the two
control groups, both of which attended a party, one with the dog present (Figure 10.1).
Figure 10.1
Testing the Model's Influence. If
the model is influential, Groups I and
II should show the most fear
reduction. If exposure to the dog is
critical, Groups I, II, and III should
show reduced fear. And if the party is
significant, there should be
decreased fear in Groups I, Hi, and IV
(Bandura, Grusec & Menlove, 1967).
Group I Group II Group III Group IV
model
dog
party
model
dog
—
—
dog
party
party