Developmental psychology.pdf

Principles of Motivation 291
same way, and we noted the fixed courtship and mating dance of the three-spined stickleback.
These reactions are species-specific behaviors, just like the wood ducklings'
response to the mother's call. Partly through specific early experience, the babies become
highly responsive to this sound (Gottlieb, 1980).
Today we are less likely to speak of instincts and more likely to view such
behaviors as arising partly through hormonal stimulation and partly on the basis of
learned cues in the environment, which shape and guide the response. Heredity and
physiology, on one hand, and the environment, on the other, both play a role in an
interactive fashion. As we discover more about these factors, there will be less need
for uncritical and sometimes circular explanations of behavior, as in the early, indiscriminate
use of the term instinct.
Emergence of Sociobiology Some critics would argue that the denial of human
instinctive behavior overstates the case, pointing perhaps to the field of sociobiology,
which states that much human social behavior is controlled by our genes. This emerging
discipline stresses the role of innate factors in human behavior, while allowing for
environmental influences as well. According to sociobiology, there are underlying genetic
determinants not only in sexual and aggressive behavior but also in selfishness,
cowardice, and other social reactions (Wilson, 1980).
In altruistic behavior, for example, an individual sacrifices, his or her own goals
for the betterment of others, a puzzling response for many social scientists. What is
the gain for the individual? Why does altruism occur? According to sociobiology, the
gain lies in genetic survival. The individual's sacrifice increases the long-term success
and survival of others of his or her kind, for whom the sacrifice invariably is made.
The gain is a species gain, driven by the genetic endowment of that species.
Most social scientists recognize the contribution of genetic factors in human
structure and functions, but they resist the highly specific applications advanced in
sociobiology. In altruism, for example, many other individual motives are possible, apart
from genetic survival, ranging from self-respect to public recognition. The broad claims
of sociobiology, especially in the absence of further empirical evidence, have led some
observers to a critical view of this new field.
Apart from sociobiology, the concept of genetic determinism simply states that
genes are influential in behavior, an idea that most people would find acceptable in one
form or another. But genetic determinism has not identified any highly specific, complex
behavior patterns that occur in the same way in all members of the species. It
therefore does not demonstrate instinctive behavior in human beings.
MOTIVES FOR SURVIVAL
As a rule, organisms lowest on the evolutionary scale have the narrowest behavioral
repertoires; higher-level organisms have broader repertoires. The degree of evolution
of any species in the animal kingdom sets limits on its behavior, and the limits that do
exist are usually related to survival motives (Breger, 1974).
The most fixed responses in each species typically concern food, drink, and
shelter, which are necessary for individual survival. Sexual and parental behavior, necessary
for the survival of the species, are also stereotypical at the lower levels.
As we turn to these motives, our primary concern is with human beings, but
we consider several species for purposes of comparison, examining the contributions
of physiological and psychological factors. We begin with species survival, which is
made possible by the motivation for sexual and parental behavior. Afterward, we turn
to individual survival and the problems of hunger, thirst, and the need for sleep and
rest.