Developmental psychology.pdf

Glossary 575
covert trial-and-error A problem-solving procedure in
which various solutions are attempted implicitly, one
after the other, without any overt action on the part of
the problem solver. The solution is attempted only
through thought processes, not overt behavior.
cranial nerves Twelve pairs of nerves arising directly from
the cerebrum and passing through an opening in the
skull.
creative thinking Productive thinking, with novel rather
than routine outcomes.
cretinism (kreet'-n-iz-m) An abnormality of structure and
behavior which results from insufficient thyroid secretion
during early growth. It involves stunted growth,
protruding abdomen, and pronounced mental
retardation.
criterion A standard against which tests are validated,
such as grades or sales records. Plural, criteria.
criterion-referenced test A test in which the person's
score is compared with some previously established
criterion, rather than with the performances of others;
used for determining the amount of learning or amount
of change within one individual, not for assessing
differences among individuals.
critical period A term with special reference to imprinting.
It is the period of maximum imprintability, before and
after which imprinting is difficult or impossible to obtain.
Also, in animals, a period when socialization is most
possible. See also imprinting.
critical score The minimum score a candidate must
achieve to be accepted into a given program or to pass
the test.
cross-sectional method A developmental research
method involving the comparison of groups of
individuals at different age levels. Contrasted with the
longitudinal method, where the same individual is
observed as he or she grows older.
cross-validation Assessing the value of a test by using it
with a sample of subjects other than the ones employed
in its construction; testing with new subjects a set of
test items already found to be of value with an earlier
group.
crowding The experience of stress in the presence of
others. This term has a subjective definition; it is not
based on the number of persons per unit of space but
upon the individual's reactions to being with other
persons. See density.
cultural deprivation The absence of normal learning
opportunities for children; an environment which does
not offer adequate stimulation for normal intellectual
development.
cultural relativism The view that concepts such as
beauty, normality, or virtue have meaning only in relation
to a particular culture.
culture-fair test A test of general intelligence allegedly of
the same difficulty for persons from different cultures;
the items are presumed to be no more difficult for
persons from one culture or another. Attempts to
construct a test of this sort have not been notably
successful.
A
culture-free test test of general intelligence in which the
influence of culture presumably has been eliminated; the
items do not pertain to any particular culture. Attempts
to construct a test of this type have been unsuccessful.
curative medicine The effort at treatment in health-care
systems. See preventive medicine.
cutaneous (kyoo-tay'-nee-us) Pertaining to the skin.
cutaneous sensitivity The various skin senses; chiefly the
experiences of pressure, temperature, and pain through
the skin.
dark adaptation Increasing visual sensitivity as one
remains in darkness or low illumination.
death instinct
ln psychoanalysis, one of the basic forces
of the id and therefore assumed to be inborn. An
impulse or motivation towards destructive behavior,
manifest in various aggressive reactions towards others
and towards oneself. See id, life instinct.
decay theory A theory of forgetting based on the premise
that the engram deteriorates during an interval when it
is not activated.
deductive reasoning Thought processes aimed at
deriving a specific conclusion from certain premises;
reasoning from the general to specifics. One form of
deductive reasoning is based on the syllogism, a threepart
statement consisting of two premises and a
conclusion. See syllogism.
deep muscle relaxation A procedure in behavior therapy.
The patient learns to control various muscle groups in
the body and therefore to gain a state of relaxation
which is incompatible with anxiety; usually employed to
relieve anxiety and various phobic reactions.
defense mechanisms Behavior patterns primarily
concerned with protecting the ego. Presumably the
process is unconscious and the aim is to fool oneself.
For examples, see repression and rationalization.
deja entendu A feeling of familiarity in response to a
certain sound or voice, though the listener has no
reason to believe that the sound has been heard
previously.
deja experience A feeling of familiarity; the impression of
prior experience with a certain person, place, or event,
even though such an experience could not have
occurred. See deja vu, deja entendu.
deja vu (day-zha voo) A feeling of familiarity in response to
a particular visual experience, though the observer has
no reason to believe that the event has been seen
previously.
delayed conditioning A method of classical conditioning
in which the conditioned stimulus remains present until
the appearance of the unconditioned stimulus.
delusion A false judgment or conclusion, as when a
mentally ill person incorrectly believes that people are
putting ground glass in his or her food.
dendrite Part of the neuron which carries the nerve
impulse toward the cell body.
density With respect to population, a measure of the
number of people in relation to a certain space. See
inside density, outside density.
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) The chemical substance
presumed basic in the genetic code and possibly in the
physiological basis of memory.