Developmental psychology.pdf

Tests and Measurement 363
Evaluation of the Approach Criterion-referenced testing was developed primarily
for individualized and self-paced instruction, in which each student is expected to
achieve mastery in his or her own way and at his or her own rate. Mastery in these
instances is indicated as a percentage of the material learned. But there are difficulties
here too. What is adequate mastery? What, for example, should be the standard for
airline pilots? What is the lowest acceptable score on the simulator test? Setting a
criterion involves an arbitrary decision, just as it does in norm-referenced testing.
The concept behind criterion-referenced testing has a long history in early
education, especially for promotion from one grade to the next. Each student is judged
on his or her ability to perform at the next level, regardless of how many others pass
as well. Licensing and certification in most professions function in this way (Shimberg,
1981). But particularly for promoting growth, testing programs should be flexible,
adapted to individual students with specific assets and limitations, rather than set at
the same absolute standard for everyone (Millman, 1980).
Purposes and Practices
These two types of tests have different purposes. Norm-referenced tests identify differences
among individuals; they are used primarily for selection. Criterion-referenced
tests reveal changes within an individual; they serve chiefly to measure progress. Expressed
differently, we can say that norm-referenced tests indicate the individual's
standing in comparison with others. Criterion-referenced tests indicate the percentage
of the material that an individual has learned. The examiner must keep these differences
in mind (Figure 13.17).
Characteristic Norm-referenced Criterion-referenced
The chief concern is
with. . .
The individual's test score is
expressed as a. . .
selection, based on
differences among
individuals. How does the
performance of pilot X
compare with that of
others taking the test?
percentile. Pilot X ranks
second among all 20
students who took the
test, placing at the 95th
percentile.
growth, based on differences
within individuals. Has the
performance of pilot X
improved over the course
of instruction?
percentage. Having
answered 16 out of 20
questions correctly, the
percentage score for pilot
X is 80.
Figure 13.17
Norm-Referenced and Criterion-
Referenced Tests.
These approaches are not mutually exclusive, however. A norm-referenced
test can be used for evaluating learning, especially by including a critical score that
serves as a criterion for passing. A criterion-referenced test can be constructed from
normative data, and it can be used for selection. But skillful examiners will find that
most tests are more suitable for one purpose than for the other (Carver, 1974; Johnson
& Martin, 1980).
Tests and Users Within this context, two dimensions of any testing situation should
be emphasized. First, one sometimes hears psychological tests described as "good" or
"bad," perhaps dependent upon the speaker's general attitude toward psychology or
experience in a particular testing situation. Instead, it is more appropriate to speak of
the potential of a test. A well-constructed test has a higher potential for measuring
intelligence, or whatever, than one developed by inexperienced people, who may not
evaluate the test carefully. A test with high validity and an adequate set of norms has
a high potential for success in its purported use (Figure 13.18).