Cambridge International A Level Biology Revision Guide

Recommendations

Info

Cambridge International AS Level Biology 222 Chapter 11: Immunity Learning outcomes You should be able to: ■■ outline how and where white blood cells originate ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ explain how the immune system distinguishes between the body’s own cells (self) and anything foreign, such as pathogens and transplanted tissues (non-self) describe how phagocytes and lymphocytes respond during an infection describe and explain the significance of the increase in white blood cell counts in people with infections and leukaemias describe how autoimmune diseases occur ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ explain how the structure of antibody molecules is related to their functions outline how monoclonal antibodies are produced and used in diagnosis and treatment distinguish between the four different types of immunity describe how vaccination is used to control some infectious diseases discuss why a vaccination programme was successful in eradicating smallpox, and the reasons why measles, cholera, malaria and TB have not been eradicated
Chapter 11: Immunity Smallpox was first; polio second? You must have been vaccinated against polio. You may wonder why people make such a fuss about having a vaccination against a disease that you are unlikely ever to come across. There may be very few cases of polio now, but in the past large numbers of people contracted the disease. In many cases, the disease was mild, but the virus that causes polio can infect the base of the nerves and cause paralysis. This happened in about 1% of all cases. Vaccines against polio became available in the 1950s and immediately mass vaccination programmes began. These have proved very successful: the last case of polio in the Americas was in 1991. In 1994, it was declared that transmission of polio had been broken so that the disease was no longer endemic in the Western Hemisphere. Success has been slower coming in the rest of the world. In 2013, there were only 369 cases of polio throughout the world. Most of these occurred in three countries: Nigeria, Somalia and Pakistan. India has mobilised huge numbers of medical staff and around 230 000 volunteers to vaccinate children throughout the country (Figure 11.1). This didn’t just happen once, but on many occasions in the government’s drive to eradicate polio. Vaccination programmes in the other countries where polio remains endemic have not been as successful as in India. One reason is that some people have resisted attempts by medical staff to vaccinate the local population. Some medical staff have been attacked, even killed, while working on polio eradication campaigns in Pakistan. In 1980, the World Health Organization announced that the viral disease smallpox had been eradicated as there had not been a new case anywhere in the world for the previous three years. Polio is the most likely candidate for the second infectious disease to be eradicated. You can follow the progress of the campaign by searching online for ‘polio eradication’. Figure 11.1 On 15 April 2012, 170 million children across India were vaccinated against polio as part of the government’s programme to eradicate the disease. 223 We now consider in detail something that was mentioned in Chapter 10: our ability to defend ourselves against infection by pathogens (disease-causing organisms). We have seen that some people experience few or no symptoms when exposed to certain infectious diseases. Even though a person may be a carrier of disease to other people, he or she has immunity. How is this possible? The disease measles is used as an example here. Most people have measles only once. In most cases, it is very unlikely that anyone surviving the disease will have it again. They are immune. Their body’s internal defence system has developed a way of recognising the measles virus and preventing it from doing any harm again. Immunity is the protection against disease provided by the body’s internal defence or immune system. The external cellular and chemical barriers that protect us from infection are part of that defence system. Defence against disease External defence system We have a variety of mechanisms to protect ourselves against infectious diseases such as measles and those described in the previous chapter. Many pathogens do not harm us, because, if we are healthy, we have physical, chemical and cellular defences that prevent them entering. For example, the epithelia that cover the airways are an effective barrier to the entry of pathogens (pages 187–189); hydrochloric acid in the stomach kills many bacteria that we ingest with our food and drink; blood clotting is a defence mechanism that stops the loss of blood and prevents the entry of pathogens through wounds in the skin.
Page 1:
Mary Jones, Richard Fosbery, Jennif
Page 4 and 5:
University Printing House, Cambridg
Page 6 and 7:
Cambridge International AS Level an
Page 8 and 9:
Cambridge International AS Level Bi
Page 10 and 11:
Page 12 and 13:
Page 14 and 15:
Page 16 and 17:
Page 18 and 19:
Page 20 and 21:
Page 23 and 24:
Chapter 1: Cell structure Ultrastru
Page 25 and 26:
Chapter 1: Cell structure The nucle
Page 27:
Chapter 1: Cell structure respirati
Page 30 and 31:
Page 32 and 33:
Page 34 and 35:
Page 36 and 37:
Page 38 and 39:
Page 40 and 41:
Page 42:
Page 45 and 46:
Chapter 2: Biological molecules A c
Page 47 and 48:
Chapter 2: Biological molecules The
Page 49 and 50:
Chapter 2: Biological molecules Pro
Page 53 and 54:
Chapter 2: Biological molecules Glo
Page 55 and 56:
Chapter 2: Biological molecules a b
Page 57 and 58:
Chapter 2: Biological molecules Hig
Page 59 and 60:
Chapter 2: Biological molecules ■
Page 61 and 62:
Chapter 2: Biological molecules 7 T
Page 63:
Chapter 1: Cell structure Chapter 3
Page 67 and 68:
Chapter 3: Enzymes Mammals such as
Page 69 and 70:
Chapter 3: Enzymes QUESTION 3.2 Why
Page 71 and 72:
Chapter 3: Enzymes Enzyme inhibitor
Page 73 and 74:
Chapter 3: Enzymes results to plot
Page 75 and 76:
Chapter 3: Enzymes BOX 3.2: Immobil
Page 77 and 78:
Chapter 3: Enzymes 2 In a reaction
Page 79 and 80:
Chapter 3: Enzymes b c The molecule
Page 81 and 82:
Chapter 3: Enzymes no inhibitor inh
Page 83 and 84:
Chapter 4: Cell membranes and trans
Page 85 and 86:
Page 87 and 88:
Page 89 and 90:
Page 91 and 92:
Page 95 and 96:
Page 97 and 98:
Page 99 and 100:
Page 101 and 102:
Page 103 and 104:
Chapter 1: Cell structure Chapter 5
Page 105:
Chapter 5: The mitotic cell cycle T
Page 108 and 109:
Page 110 and 111:
Page 112 and 113:
Page 114 and 115:
Page 116 and 117:
Page 118 and 119:
Page 120 and 121:
Page 122 and 123:
Page 124 and 125:
Page 126 and 127:
Page 128 and 129:
Page 130 and 131:
Page 132 and 133:
Page 134 and 135:
Page 136 and 137:
Page 138 and 139:
Page 140 and 141:
Page 142 and 143:
Page 144 and 145:
Page 146 and 147:
Page 148 and 149:
Page 150 and 151:
Page 152 and 153:
Page 155 and 156:
Chapter 7: Transport in plants a b
Page 157 and 158:
Chapter 7: Transport in plants Siev
Page 159 and 160:
Chapter 7: Transport in plants Solu
Page 161 and 162:
Chapter 7: Transport in plants a ph
Page 163 and 164:
Chapter 7: Transport in plants End-
Page 165 and 166:
Chapter 7: Transport in plants 9 Th
Page 167 and 168:
Chapter 8: Transport in mammals 157
Page 169 and 170:
Chapter 8: Transport in mammals Key
Page 171 and 172:
Chapter 8: Transport in mammals Art
Page 174 and 175:
Page 176 and 177:
Page 178 and 179:
Page 180 and 181:
Page 182 and 183: Cambridge International AS Level Bi
Page 222: Cambridge International AS Level Bi
Page 225 and 226: Chapter 10: Infectious diseases Ver
Page 227 and 228: Chapter 10: Infectious diseases QUE
Page 229 and 230: Chapter 10: Infectious diseases End
Page 231: Chapter 10: Infectious diseases 8 a
Page 235 and 236: Chapter 11: Immunity Phagocytes Pha
Page 237 and 238: Chapter 11: Immunity Some of these
Page 239 and 240: Chapter 11: Immunity variable regio
Page 241 and 242: Chapter 11: Immunity secrete cytoki
Page 243 and 244: Chapter 11: Immunity Concentration
Page 245 and 246: Chapter 11: Immunity Antigenic conc
Page 247 and 248: Chapter 11: Immunity Autoimmune dis
Page 249 and 250: Chapter 11: Immunity antigen inject
Page 251 and 252: Chapter 11: Immunity Summary ■■
Page 253 and 254: Chapter 11: Immunity 3 Which of the
Page 255 and 256: Chapter 11: Immunity 10 a Rearrange
Page 257: Chapter P1: Practical skills for AS
Page 278 and 279: Cambridge International A Level Bio
Page 280 and 281: Cambridge International A Level Bio
Page 282 and 283:
Cambridge International A Level Bio
Page 284 and 285:
Page 286 and 287:
Page 288 and 289:
Page 290 and 291:
Page 292 and 293:
Page 294 and 295:
Page 296 and 297:
Page 298 and 299:
Page 300 and 301:
Page 302 and 303:
Page 304 and 305:
Page 306 and 307:
Page 308 and 309:
Page 310 and 311:
Page 313 and 314:
Chapter 14: Homeostasis The hypotha
Page 315 and 316:
Chapter 14: Homeostasis The structu
Page 317 and 318:
Chapter 14: Homeostasis The kidney
Page 319 and 320:
Chapter 14: Homeostasis Blood capil
Page 321 and 322:
H 2 O H 2 O Na 5 Key part of the as
Page 323 and 324:
Chapter 14: Homeostasis How ADH aff
Page 325 and 326:
Chapter 14: Homeostasis The control
Page 327 and 328:
Chapter 14: Homeostasis A decrease
Page 329 and 330:
Chapter 14: Homeostasis People with
Page 331 and 332:
Chapter 14: Homeostasis Stomata sho
Page 333 and 334:
Chapter 14: Homeostasis Stomata clo
Page 335 and 336:
Chapter 14: Homeostasis End-of-chap
Page 337 and 338:
Chapter 14: Homeostasis 8 An invest
Page 339 and 340:
Chapter 15: Coordination 329 Learni
Page 341 and 342:
Chapter 15: Coordination central ne
Page 343 and 344:
Chapter 15: Coordination A reflex a
Page 345 and 346:
Chapter 15: Coordination Action pot
Page 347 and 348:
Chapter 15: Coordination What is di
Page 349 and 350:
Chapter 15: Coordination in sense o
Page 351 and 352:
Chapter 15: Coordination Synapses W
Page 353 and 354:
Chapter 15: Coordination The depola
Page 355 and 356:
Chapter 15: Coordination It is obvi
Page 357 and 358:
Chapter 15: Coordination Structure
Page 359 and 360:
Chapter 15: Coordination binding si
Page 361 and 362:
Chapter 15: Coordination The menstr
Page 363 and 364:
Chapter 15: Coordination The mornin
Page 365 and 366:
Chapter 15: Coordination Auxins and
Page 367 and 368:
Chapter 15: Coordination Summary
Page 369 and 370:
Chapter 15: Coordination 3 Which of
Page 371 and 372:
Chapter 15: Coordination 9 A biopsy
Page 373 and 374:
Chapter 15: Coordination 12 Gibbere
Page 375 and 376:
Chapter 16: Inherited change Katydi
Page 377 and 378:
Chapter 16: Inherited change Two ty
Page 379 and 380:
Chapter 16: Inherited change Meiosi
Page 381 and 382:
Chapter 16: Inherited change Gameto
Page 383 and 384:
Chapter 16: Inherited change a An o
Page 385 and 386:
Chapter 16: Inherited change The ob
Page 387 and 388:
Chapter 16: Inherited change It is
Page 389 and 390:
Chapter 16: Inherited change Sex li
Page 391 and 392:
Chapter 16: Inherited change The pl
Page 393 and 394:
Chapter 16: Inherited change of 9 :
Page 395 and 396:
Chapter 16: Inherited change Phenot
Page 397 and 398:
Chapter 16: Inherited change So now
Page 399:
Chapter 16: Inherited change vision
Page 403 and 404:
Chapter 16: Inherited change End-of
Page 405 and 406:
Chapter 16: Inherited change 10 In
Page 407 and 408:
Chapter 17: Selection and evolution
Page 409 and 410:
Genetic variation, whether caused b
Page 411 and 412:
Page 413 and 414:
Page 415 and 416:
Page 417 and 418:
Page 419 and 420:
Page 421 and 422:
Page 423 and 424:
Page 425 and 426:
Page 427 and 428:
Page 429 and 430:
Page 431 and 432:
Page 433 and 434:
Chapter 18: Biodiversity, classific
Page 435 and 436:
Page 437 and 438:
Page 439 and 440:
Page 441 and 442:
Page 443 and 444:
Page 445 and 446:
Page 447 and 448:
Page 450 and 451:
Page 452 and 453:
Page 454 and 455:
Page 456 and 457:
Page 458 and 459:
Page 460 and 461:
Page 462 and 463:
Page 464 and 465:
Page 466 and 467:
Page 468 and 469:
Page 470 and 471:
Page 472 and 473:
Page 474 and 475:
Page 476 and 477:
Page 478 and 479:
Page 480 and 481:
Page 482 and 483:
Page 484 and 485:
Page 486 and 487:
Page 488 and 489:
Page 490 and 491:
Page 492 and 493:
Page 494 and 495:
Page 496 and 497:
Page 498 and 499:
Page 500 and 501:
Page 502 and 503:
Page 504 and 505:
Page 506 and 507:
Page 508 and 509:
Page 510 and 511:
Page 512 and 513:
Page 514 and 515:
Page 516 and 517:
Page 518 and 519:
Page 521 and 522:
Chapter P2: Planning, analysis and
Page 523 and 524:
Appendix 2: DNA and RNA triplet cod
Page 525 and 526:
Glossary artery a blood vessel that
Page 527 and 528:
Glossary creatinine a nitrogenous e
Page 529 and 530:
Glossary haemoglobin the red pigmen
Page 531 and 532:
Glossary negative feedback a proces
Page 533 and 534:
Glossary reaction centre a molecule
Page 535 and 536:
Glossary transfer RNA (tRNA) a fold
Page 537 and 538:
Chapter 1: Cell structure Index C3
Page 539 and 540:
Index gluconeogenesis, 317 glucose,
Page 541 and 542:
Index pacemaker, 177 palisade mesop
Page 543 and 544:
Index tar, 190, 191, 193 taste buds
Page 545:
Acknowledgements Meiosis” in Tuat
Page 548 and 549:
Cambridge International AS and A Le
Page 550 and 551:
Page 552 and 553:
Page 554 and 555:
Page 556 and 557:
Page 558 and 559:
Page 560 and 561:
Page 562 and 563:
Page 564 and 565:
Page 566 and 567:
Page 568 and 569:
Page 570 and 571:
Page 572 and 573:
Page 574 and 575:
Page 576 and 577:
Page 578 and 579:
Page 580 and 581:
Page 582 and 583:
Page 584 and 585:
Page 586 and 587:
Page 588 and 589:
Page 590 and 591:
Page 592 and 593:
Page 594 and 595:
Page 596 and 597:
Page 598 and 599:
Page 600 and 601:
Page 602 and 603:
Page 604 and 605:
Page 606 and 607:
Page 608 and 609:
Page 610 and 611:
Page 612 and 613:
Page 614 and 615:
Page 616 and 617:
Page 618 and 619:
Page 620 and 621:
Page 622 and 623:
Page 624 and 625:
Page 626 and 627:
Page 628 and 629:
Page 630 and 631:
Page 632 and 633:
Page 634 and 635:
Page 636 and 637:
Page 638 and 639:
Page 640 and 641:
Page 642 and 643:
Page 644 and 645:
Page 646 and 647:
Page 648 and 649:
Page 650 and 651:
Page 652 and 653:
Page 654 and 655:
Page 656 and 657:
Page 658 and 659:
Page 660 and 661:
Page 662 and 663:
Page 664 and 665:
Page 666 and 667:
Page 668 and 669:
Page 670 and 671:
Page 672 and 673:
Page 674 and 675:
Page 676 and 677:
Page 678 and 679:
Page 680 and 681:
Page 682 and 683:
Page 684 and 685:
Page 686 and 687:
Page 688 and 689:
Page 690 and 691:
Page 692 and 693:
Page 694 and 695:
Page 696:
show all

Cambridge International A Level Biology Revision Guide

Create successful ePaper yourself

Delete template?

Save as template?