Chapter 2. Prehension

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<strong>Chapter</strong> 5 - Movement Before Contact 123 in the motor cortex, providing evidence that the motor cortex may be viewed as a computational map. At the same time, some features of limb movements may not be explicitly planned by supraspinal sys- tems. It is possible that the CNS is using simplifying rules to generate close but inexact approximations (or ballparks) of an intended mov- ment. The hand path, for example, which tends to be in straight lines and exhibit bell-shaped velocity profiles, may not be being planned, but may emerge as a result of the CNS transformations from goal location to intrinsic joint angles or muscle lengths and/or from the me- chanical properties of the limb. 5.3.2 Symmetric vs asymmetric velocity profiles A pointing study performed by Atkeson and Hollerbach (1985) brought out important features about unrestrained arm movements. Subjects started with their hand in one of six locations in space, and were asked to move their arm within a plane to another location which was lit with a light-emitting diode. In order to collect these data, Atkeson and Hollerbach used a SELSPOT system, allowing them to track the subject’s index finger tip, wrist, elbow, and shoulder movements over time. Small, light-emitting diodes were attached to the body part to be tracked, and solid state cameras captured the kinemat- ics of the movement. In terms of the path of the wrist, some paths were straight-line, some were curved, depending on the location of the movement in the workspace. Subjects were required to carry a load in their hands for some of the trials. For a given direction, there was path invariance with speed and load. Atkeson and Hollerbach found that practice did not influence the movements. They showed that the tangential velocity profile, scaled both in time and amplitude, was invariant for all subjects, speeds, loads and directions (shown in Figure 5.4). Other investigators have not always found symmetric velocity profiles in pointing tasks. MacKenzie, Marteniuk, Dugas, Liske, and Eickmeier (1987) replicated the conditions from Paul Fitts’ study on discrete aiming (Fitts 1954, Experiment 2), and found systematic effects of target size on the degree of asymmetry in the tangential velocity profiles. Subjects were asked to point with a stylus ‘as quickly and as accurately as possible’ to a target of varying size and at varying distances. The question being asked concerned whether there was a reliable kinematic measure of the precision requirements of the task. In this case, Fitts’ Law (Fitts, 1954) was used, which states
124 THE PHASES OF PREHENSION Figure 5.4. Wrist tangential velocity profile shape invariance across a) different speeds b) different loads, c) different movements, and d) different subjects (from Atkeson and Hollerbach, 1985; reprinted by permission). that movement time (MT) is directly proportional to the index of difficulty (ID) of the task MT = a + b x ID (2)
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ADVANCES IN PSYCHOLOGY 104 Editors:
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NORTH-HOLLAND ELSEVIER SCIENCE B.V.
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vi THE GRASPING HAND including comp
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viii THE GRASPING HAND Finally, all
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xii THE GRASPING HAND Part I11 CONS
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xiv Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2 Figure 1.
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emphasis on Grasp emphasis on secur
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Figure 2.5 Prehensile postures cons
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Figure 2.7 Oppositions can be descr
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36 WHAT IS PREHENSION? Many posture
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40 WHAT IS PREHENSION? d Figure 2.9
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184 THE PHASES OF PREHENSION (1982b
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240 THE PHASES OF PREHENSION 6.3.2
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Table 6.6 Elliott & Connolly (1984)
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aie3 INTRINSIC - mughnesn aspect of
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306 CONSTRAINTS AND PHASES Table 8.
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z I l l I 0 Y "K ' ,------ Sensorim
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Opposition Space level Sensorimotor
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342 CONSTRAINTS AND PHASES 9.3 Futu
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344 CONSTRAINTS AND PHASES scientif
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350 Appendices Anterior (ventral):
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352 Appendices =!- / Scapula Acromi
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354 A pp e n dices Table A.l Degree
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356 Appendices Table A.l Degrees of
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358 Appendices Flexion: to bend or
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360 A pp e n dic e s Table A.2 Join
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362 A pp e It dices Elbow flex ext
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364 A pp e n dices Table A.2 Joints
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366 A pp e n dic e s Table A.3 Inne
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370 Appendices Table B.l Prehensile
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372 Appendices ...... ........... t
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374 Appendices features of the huma
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376 Appendices fingers (Kamakura et
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378 Appendices Table B.3 Postures c
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380 Appendices opposition, is Napie
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382 A pp e n dic e s relationships
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384 A pp e n dic e s C.2 Artificial
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386 A pp e n dic e s thresholding f
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388 A pp e n dices processing. This
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392 A pp e n dic e s where q is a s
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394 A pp e It d ic e s training set
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396 A pp e It dic e s units. Also,
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398 Appendices only sense is vision
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400 A pp e n dices of computations
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402 A pp e n dic e s satisfy active
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404 Appendices biceps, and shoulder
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406 Appendices Table D.l Commercial
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408 Appendices Table D.2 Commercial
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410 Appendices Sears et al., 1989).
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412 A ppe It dic e s are active, wh
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414 A ppen die es automatic lock wh
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416 A pp e n dices between the thum
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418 Appendices D.3.1 Stanford/JPL h
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420 A pp e n dices D.3.3 Belgrade/U
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424 THE GRASPING HAND Arbib, M.A. (
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426 THE GRASPING HAND Bullock, D.,
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428 THE GRASPING HAND Cutkosky, M.R
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430 THE GRASPING HAND Focillon, H.
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432 THE GRASPING HAND Gordon, A.M.,
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434 THE GRASPING HAND Hollerbach, J
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436 THE GRASPING HAND Jeannerod, M.
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438 THE GRASPING HAND Kamakura, N.,
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440 THE GRASPING HAND Landsmeer, J.
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442 THE GRASPING HAND MacKenzie, C.
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444 THE GRASPING HAND Moore, D.F. (
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446 THE GRASPING HAND Phillips, C.G
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448 THE GRASPING HAND Rumelhart, D.
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450 THE GRASPING HAND disconnection
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452 THE GRASPING HAND Weir, P.L. (1
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456 THE GRASPING HAND Childress, D.
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458 THE GRASPING HAND Johansson, R.
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460 THE GRASPING HAND Proteau, L.,
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464 THE GRASPING HAND level, of map
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466 THE GRASPING HAND a h Generaliz
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468 THE GRASPING HAND Forces. Force
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470 THE GRASPING HAND han& Robotics
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472 THE GRASPING HAND and force coo
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474 THE GRASPING HAND and task requ
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476 THE GRASPING HAND Pen, as grasp
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478 THE GRASPING HAND Screwdriver,
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480 THE GRASPING HAND and oppositio
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482 THE GRASPING HAND and grasping,
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Chapter 2. Prehension

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