Post 2015: Global Action for an Inclusive and Sustainable Future

CHApTER nInE
In addition to
helping to
reduce poverty,
international
labour migration
and remittances
are linked to the
achievement of the
MDGs on
education, health
and gender
equality. The
scale of any such
impact may
depend on how
remittance income
is used.
174
income is used. there is growing evidence that it
tends to be spent mostly on education and health
rather than on everyday consumption (ratha et al.,
2011b; GDn/Ippr, 2010).
latin american countries have seen a positive
impact of remittances on education spending,
school attendance, girls’ education and literacy
(calero et al., 2009; adams and cuecuecha, 2010;
Hanson and Woodruff, 2003). there are similar
findings for asian countries (Yang, 2008) and for
africa (ratha et al., 2011a: 65). While some research
shows a negative impact of international migration
on educational achievements (mcKenzie and
rapoport, 2010), the overall evidence suggests that
migration and remittances contribute to household
spending on education and can positively influence
its quality, although greater expenditure on
education does not necessarily affect the years of
schooling in migrants’ households (GDn/Ippr,
2010).
there are also positive links between international
remittances and health-related mDGs, such as
reducing child and maternal mortality, and there
is some evidence that international remittances and
diaspora investment have increased expenditure on
health infrastructure (unEca, 2006; chauvet et al.,
2009). remittances can enable households to invest
in health and medical support, and better diets
(Iom, 2010a) and are associated with better access
to formal health services (Drabo and Ebeke, 2010).
these positive findings are, however, compromised
by at least three factors. First, many lower skilled
labour migrants work in hazardous conditions but
do not have access to health services (lee et al.,
2011). Second, migration, and especially circular
migration, seems to contribute to the spread of HIv
and aIDS (unaIDS, 2008; Iom et al., 2008). third,
the achievement of health goals in migrant-sending
countries could be undermined by the migration
of health professionals or ‘brain drain’, but since
this phenomenon generally concerns high-skilled
migration it is not the focus of this chapter.
EuropEan rEport on DEvElopmEnt 2013
concerning the promotion of gender equality, if
men migrate, women may take a more prominent
part in decisions at the community level and be
more autonomous in the household (Deshingkar
and Grimm, 2005; pandey et al., 2012:81). although
women may be empowered by taking on new or
non-traditional roles, improving their status and
their social recognition, male migration may also
increase women’s workload (oScE, 2009). In nepal,
for example, in the absence of men, women often
assume more responsibilities and perform tasks
over and above their conventional household duties
(pandey et al., 2012:63). Elsewhere, such as in parts
of rural mexico, remittance income has enabled
women to reduce the time they spend in low-paid
and informal employment (amuedo-Dorantes and
pozo, 2006). the social impact on children when a
close family member migrates will vary according
to their particular circumstances and the wider
national context. children may benefit if their
family is wealthier but could be more vulnerable if
a parent has migrated.
Some countries report a growing number of
independent women migrants (un-InStraW
and SaIIa, 2007). this can be viewed as a form of
empowerment, as women can support themselves
and their households and have more control over
their income, which can enhance their self-esteem
(oScE, 2009). all migrants are potentially vulnerable
during the migration process. Women migrants are
more likely than men to work in social and welfare
professions and in domestic service, which tend to
be less regulated and may not be covered by labour
legislation (oScE, 2009; timothy and Sasikumar,
2012). Women migrants with secondary or tertiary
education or vocational training often end up
working in low-paid and low-skilled jobs (oScE,
2009; Gaye and Jha, 2011). the lack of international
focus on the promotion of legal and safe channels
for women migrants has led to an increase in
their undocumented and irregular migration, for
example in South asia, which intensifies existing
vulnerabilities (timothy and Sasikumar, 2012:2).