Solar Energy Perspectives - IEA

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Solar Energy Perspectives: Testing the limits energy, including the electricity, will presumably not differ much from the cost of gasoline or diesel fuel in ten years from now. It remains to be seen to what extent V2G is to be preferred over large-scale electricity storage options, or whether it should be seen instead as an ultimate resource to avoid black-outs in very rare occurrences. 2 One can assume, though, that the required storage capacities are driven much more by the constraints of responding to peak demand than by the constraints of avoiding curtailment of renewable variables. Large-scale electricity storage Technology options for electricity storage are examined in Chapter 3. The primary candidate for very large-scale electricity storage is pumped-hydro. The power capacity of some existing plants might be increased through more frequent use of their existing reservoir capabilities. But many new stations would be necessary to fulfil the storage requirement of a high penetration of variable renewables. The overall potential offered by natural relief is not precisely known, and not all countries have mountains, but it is probably much larger than the current capacities. Many existing hydropower stations, sometimes already consisting of several successive basins, could be turned into pumped hydro stations. In North America, for example, with 100 metres altitude difference, the lakes Erie and Ontario could provide for 10 GW peaking capacities and very large storage capacities due to their large surface areas. They could offer one of the few affordable seasonal storage options, providing the investment in waterways and pumps/ turbines is paid for by daily operations. New options are also emerging that would allow pumped-hydro stations using the sea as the lower reservoir. One such pilot plant is already in service in the Japanese island of Okinawa (Photo 11.1). Seawater pumped-hydro facilities could be built in many places. Ideally situated sites would allow for a water head of several dozen metres difference between a cliff top basin and sea level. If mountainous and coastal natural-lift pumped-hydro plants were not sufficient, it is possible to build new plants on the sea, entirely offshore or, more likely, coastal, as this would limit the length of the necessary dykes. The idea is to use dykes to create a basin (Figure 11.7) that is either higher or lower than sea level. The necessarily low water head in such cases, however, would require large water flows. In total the costs for very large seawater plants might be 50% higher than in the cases described earlier, and even higher for smaller plants. Economies of scale are important here, as the storage capacity increases with the square of the dyke lengths, which account for a large share of the costs. Although no such plant exists yet, the concept involves no more than a combination of existing marine technologies. Resistance to corrosion from salty waters, in particular, has been proven for half a century with tidal plants such as La Rance in France. Because use of pumped-hydro storage to manage variable renewable sources is based on daily operations, it offers a much smaller footprint than ordinary hydro power of similar electric capacities. A global capacity of 2 500 GW pumped-hydro storage for 50 hours would require (assuming standard depths for the basins) less than 40 000 km 2 of surface area, compared to 300 000 km 2 for existing hydropower plants. 2. See Jacobson and Delucchi, 2011b for an extensive discussion of the costs of V2G. 206 © OECD/IEA, 2011
Chapter 11: Testing the limits Photo 11.1 Okinawa’s pumped-hydro plant using the ocean as lower reservoir Source: J-POWER. Key point Many opportunities exist for seawater pumped-hydro plants on the shore. Figure 11.7 Sample scheme of a dyke creating an artificial offshore basin in shallow waters for pumped-hydro Chalk Sand/gravel Existing chalk Breakwater 0 100m Source: François Lempérière/Hydrocoop. Key point Large offshore seawater pumped-hydro plants would cost 50% more than onshore plants. Investment costs for pumped hydro stations vary from USD 500/kW in the easiest cases to USD 2000/kW for the most difficult cases or coastal marine pumped hydro facilities. Assuming an average cost of USD 1 500/kW with 10% discount rate, investment costs would amount to costs of USD 90/MWh shifted, plus 20% of the generating cost of each shifted MWh to account for the losses (i.e. on average USD 20 per MWh shifted). So the total storage cost would be about USD 110/MWh shifted. If the cost of storage is computed with respect to the total variable 207 © OECD/IEA, 2011
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Renewable Energy Renewable TECHNOLO
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Renewable Energy Technologies Solar
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INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY The Int
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Foreword Foreword Solar energy tech
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Acknowledgements Acknowledgements T
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Table of contents Table of Contents
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Table of contents Chapter 7 Solar h
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Table of contents Chapter 3 Chapter
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Table of contents Chapter 4 Figure
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Table of contents Figure 10.4 • N
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Executive Summary Executive Summary
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Executive Summary A possible vision
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Chapter 1: Rationale for harnessing
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PART A MARKETS AND OUTLOOK Chapter
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Chapter 2: The solar resource and i
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PART B TECHNOLOGIES Chapter 6 Solar
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