Solar Energy Perspectives - IEA

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Solar Energy Perspectives: The solar resource and its possible uses Figure 2.10 Increase in collected energy on optimally titled collectors versus horizontal ones 180 o W 90 o W 0 o 90 o E 180 o E 60 o N 60 o S 30 o N 30 o S 0 o 600 kWh/m 2 /y 550 kWh/m 2 /y 500 kWh/m 2 /y 450 kWh/m 2 /y 400 kWh/m 2 /y 350 kWh/m 2 /y 300 kWh/m 2 /y 250 kWh/m 2 /y 200 kWh/m 2 /y 150 kWh/m 2 /y 100 kWh/m 2 /y 50 kWh/m 2 /y Note: The map shows the increase in collected energy gained by tilting the receiving surfaces at its optimal angle. Source: Breyer and Schmidt, 2010a. Key point Collector tilt angle reduces geographical disparities in available solar energy resource. But tracking the sun comes at a cost. Higher concentration factors require more precise tracking, which entail higher costs. Furthermore, the diffuse radiation incoming onto the reflector does not hit the receiver and is lost. The importance of this loss is shown in juxtaposing global normal and direct normal irradiance levels worldwide (except the Poles) (Figure 2.11). In any case, concentrating technologies can be deployed only where DNI largely dominates the solar radiation mix, i.e. in sunny countries where the skies are clear most of the time, over hot and arid or semi-arid regions of the globe. These are the ideal places for concentrating solar power (CSP), concentrating photovoltaics (CPV), but also manufacturing of solar fuels and, of course, other industrial uses of high-temperature solar heat. These are also regions where solar desalination is likely to take place, given the usual scarcity of water. In humid equatorial regions, sunshine is abundant but the diffuse component is relatively more important so concentrating technology is less suitable. PV would work fine, but so do solar water heaters and some other uses of solar heat, from crop drying to process heat, and some forms of solar cooking. It is often beyond 40° of latitude (north or south) or at high altitudes that solar space heating is most profitable. Indeed, the same phenomenon that makes the air cooler at altitude (i.e. the lower density of the atmosphere) also makes the sunshine stronger, when the weather is fine. Here, land relief is important, as it heavily influences the availability of sunshine. Concentrating PV has only a small share in the current PV market, and a very large majority of the market for solar heat today is based on non-concentrating collectors. Concentrating solar power takes all the current market for solar thermal electricity, and is the only available technology option for manufacturing solar fuels. 42 © OECD/IEA, 2011
Chapter 2: The solar resource and its possible uses Figure 2.11 Global normal (top) and direct normal (bottom) Irradiance 180 W Global normal irradiance (GNI) 90 o W 90 o E 180 o E 60 o N 60 o S 30 o N 30 o S 0 o 4 000 kWh/m 2 /y 3 750 kWh/m 2 /y 3 500 kWh/m 2 /y 3 250 kWh/m 2 /y 3 000 kWh/m 2 /y 2 750 kWh/m 2 /y 2 500 kWh/m 2 /y 2 250 kWh/m 2 /y 2 000 kWh/m 2 /y 1 750 kWh/m 2 /y 1 500 kWh/m 2 /y 1 250 kWh/m 2 /y 1 000 kWh/m 2 /y 750 kWh/m 2 /y 500 kWh/m 2 /y Direct normal irradiance (DNI) 60 o N 60 o S 30 o N 30 o S 0 o 4 000 kWh/m 2 /y 3 750 kWh/m 2 /y 3 500 kWh/m 2 /y 3 250 kWh/m 2 /y 3 000 kWh/m 2 /y 2 750 kWh/m 2 /y 2 500 kWh/m 2 /y 2 250 kWh/m 2 /y 2 000 kWh/m 2 /y 1 750 kWh/m 2 /y 1 500 kWh/m 2 /y 1 250 kWh/m 2 /y 1 000 kWh/m 2 /y 750 kWh/m 2 /y 500 kWh/m 2 /y 180 o W o 0 o 90 E 90 o W 0 o o 180 o E Notes: Global normal irradiance offers the maximum resource and requires two-axis sun-tracking (top). Two-axis sun-tracking with concentration devices leads to direct normal irradiance (bottom), losing the diffuse component. Source: Breyer and Schmidt, 2010b. Key point Tracking increases the collected energy; concentration narrows it to direct light. Knowing the resource is key to its exploitation As the solar resource varies in large proportion with location and time-scales, a solar project of any kind requires a good amount of knowledge on the actual resource. This requires assessing not only the overall global solar energy available, but also the relative magnitude of its three components: direct-beam irradiance, diffuse irradiance from the sky including clouds, and irradiance by reflection from the ground surface. Also important are the patterns of seasonal availability, variability of irradiance, and daytime temperature on site. As seen above, long-term measurement is necessary to avoid being misled by the annual variability, especially in temperate regions. 43 © OECD/IEA, 2011
Page 1 and 2: Renewable Energy Renewable TECHNOLO
Page 3 and 4: Renewable Energy Technologies Solar
Page 5 and 6: INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY The Int
Page 7 and 8: Foreword Foreword Solar energy tech
Page 9 and 10: Acknowledgements Acknowledgements T
Page 11 and 12: Table of contents Table of Contents
Page 13 and 14: Table of contents Chapter 7 Solar h
Page 15 and 16: Table of contents Chapter 3 Chapter
Page 17 and 18: Table of contents Chapter 4 Figure
Page 19 and 20: Table of contents Figure 10.4 • N
Page 21 and 22: Executive Summary Executive Summary
Page 23 and 24: Executive Summary A possible vision
Page 25 and 26: Chapter 1: Rationale for harnessing
Page 31 and 32: PART A MARKETS AND OUTLOOK Chapter
Page 33 and 34: Chapter 2: The solar resource and i
Page 43: Chapter 2: The solar resource and i
Page 49 and 50: Chapter 3: Solar electricity Chapte
Page 51 and 52: Chapter 3: Solar electricity Versat
Page 53 and 54: Chapter 3: Solar electricity Figure
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Page 57 and 58: Chapter 3: Solar electricity to a t
Page 59 and 60: Chapter 3: Solar electricity New in
Page 61 and 62: Chapter 3: Solar electricity Variou
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Page 67 and 68: Chapter 3: Solar electricity Kenya
Page 69 and 70: Chapter 3: Solar electricity • Ad
Page 71 and 72: Chapter 4: Buildings Chapter 4 Buil
Page 73 and 74: Chapter 4: Buildings South Africa,
Page 75 and 76: Chapter 4: Buildings Figure 4.3 Bui
Page 77 and 78: Chapter 4: Buildings Défense near
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Chapter 5: Industry and transport C
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Chapter 5: Industry and transport c
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Chapter 5: Industry and transport i
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Chapter 5: Industry and transport a
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Chapter 5: Industry and transport i
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Chapter 5: Industry and transport T
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Chapter 5: Industry and transport h
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Chapter 5: Industry and transport t
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PART B TECHNOLOGIES Chapter 6 Solar
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Chapter 6: Solar photovoltaics Chap
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Chapter 6: Solar photovoltaics Figu
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Chapter 6: Solar photovoltaics of t
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Chapter 6: Solar photovoltaics or a
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Chapter 6: Solar photovoltaics Anot
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Chapter 6: Solar photovoltaics sout
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Chapter 7: Solar heat Chapter 7 Sol
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Chapter 7: Solar heat incoming radi
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Chapter 7: Solar heat Evacuated tub
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Chapter 7: Solar heat Photo 7.2 Che
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Chapter 7: Solar heat with the temp
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Chapter 7: Solar heat Photo 7.6 Pos
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Chapter 7: Solar heat Figure 7.8 Sc
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Chapter 7: Solar heat Figure 7.10 B
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Chapter 7: Solar heat inert materia
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Chapter 8: Solar thermal electricit
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Chapter 9: Solar fuels Chapter 9 So
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Chapter 9: Solar fuels “Solar fue
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Chapter 9: Solar fuels in line-focu
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Chapter 9: Solar fuels back to wate
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Chapter 9: Solar fuels Solar gasifi
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PART C THE WAY FORWARD Chapter 10 P
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Chapter 10: Policies Chapter 10 Pol
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Chapter 10: Policies distinguish pe
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Chapter 10: Policies Photo 10.1 Chi
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Chapter 10: Policies In Morocco, se
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Chapter 10: Policies and linked to
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Chapter 10: Policies ambition of th
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Chapter 10: Policies Figure 10.6 Sc
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Chapter 10: Policies and can hardly
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Chapter 10: Policies fossil-fuel pl
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Chapter 10: Policies It would make
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Chapter 10: Policies In the retail
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Chapter 11: Testing the limits Chap
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Chapter 11: Testing the limits grow
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Chapter 11: Testing the limits betw
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Chapter 11: Testing the limits Figu
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Chapter 11: Testing the limits esti
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Water availability is unlikely to b
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Chapter 11: Testing the limits 10 0
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Chapter 11: Testing the limits tran
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Chapter 12: Conclusions and recomme
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Chapter 12: Conclusions and recomme
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Annex A Annex A Definitions, abbrev
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Annex A REC RPS SACP sc-Si SEI SEII
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Annex B Annex B References A.T. Kea
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Annex B Greenpeace International, S
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Annex B Malbranche, Ph. et C. Phili
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