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4. THE CULTURAL FABRIC OF CITIES to which culture is actually performing its expected development functions. Urban development strategies were long based on land-use controls, with the help of tools such as land occupancy plans, building permits, and development rights. Urban planning now supplements these top-down tools and policies with decentralised and horizontal approaches where the aggregation of pre-targeted activities is expected to produce spin-offs that will have a positive impact on the contours of a district or a city. While “flagship” cultural projects are the major focus today, it must be recognised that the contribution of culture to the urban fabric also comes from the conversion of old industrial sites, the creation of culture quarters, and the development of a city’s artistic life and heritage. It is in all these ways that a city can affirm its identity, its attractiveness, and its determination to exploit new resources for development. Culture-based urban renewal Experiments establishing a link between culture and the city reveal some common traits: culture enhances a territory’s image and gives it a new perspective, it strengthens social cohesion, it causes the inhabitants to pay more attention to their territory, and to undertake projects (Bianchini and Parkinson, 1993). In his 1996 study, “The Art of Regeneration: Urban renewal through cultural activity”, Landry points in particular to the behaviour of people who perceive positive effects from such cultural investments (Landry, 1996). By contrast, the idea that culture can have economic effects other then through tourism, such as developing a skilled renovation industry, or spearheading the growth of creative industries, is hardly mentioned. Another effect that is often overlooked is the impact on real estate values, although this can be a two-edged sword: on one hand, higher property values will be regarded as a positive increase in assets, while on the other hand it has the negative effect of displacing low-income groups from their traditional areas of residence (Zukin, 1992). This traditional role of culture has related primarily to its heritage aspects (monuments, museums, public art) or events (festivals, exhibitions), although more recently the linkage between urban development, culture and creativity has been noted. We may even say that, when it comes to urban planning, heritage is the prime consideration. Heritage is assigned a major role in the rehabilitation of city centres and their image. With the recognition of new forms of ethnic or artistic heritage, culture has also sparked the rehabilitation of more distant neighbourhoods (Garreau, 1991). Today we find that these rehabilitation strategies, where private promoters play a growing role, require a new approach to urban governance. Thus the role of culture, often justified by the desire to develop an image and to promote practices that will rally the inhabitants and their communities, has often entailed the growing privatisation of public spaces and a new division of responsibilities between the public and private spheres (McGuigan, 1997). CULTURE AND LOCAL DEVELOPMENT - ISBN 92-64-00990-6 - © OECD 2005 133
4. THE CULTURAL FABRIC OF CITIES Beyond these elements (many of which were discussed in the preceding chapters), we must note the variety of underlying approaches to implementing these strategies. While there is an element of culture in most urban renewal strategies, it does not always play the same role. If we consider monuments on one hand and public art on the other, the former will be expected to change radically the look and feel of the city, to residents and outsiders alike, while the latter has more to do with improving day-today life and communication among the city’s inhabitants. Beyond the specific contributions of different forms of cultural expression, culture can either give rise to or support urban renewal strategies. Culture as an end in itself in urban strategies The first case can be illustrated by American or English cities that, with their inheritance of sizable industrial or port facilities, have sought to transform them for cultural and recreational purposes and use them as spearheads for redevelopment efforts. Baltimore and Nottingham are prime examples. While the Baltimore case is well known, and has been taken as a model by several European cities (such as Liverpool and St Nazaire), Nottingham has not attracted the same attention. The renovation of one of its southern suburbs, the Lace Market, which was once a centre of the lace industry, marked the starting point of a thorough urban renewal. In 1989, a public-private partnership created the Lace Market Development Company and set out to renovate the district from a cultural and an economic viewpoint. The project involves renovating heritage (which is why English Heritage was involved in the partnership), reorganising the lace industry, and introducing daytime and nighttime recreation activities (Crewe and Beaverstock, 1998). The key to the city’s redevelopment was the revival of the lace industry, and the new design skills that then spread to other sectors. Today there are probably more than 15,000 people working in design and related activities. As this last example shows, it is rare for culture to serve as the sole basis for urban redevelopment. In the case of Baltimore, recreational development was just as important as culture in supporting the renewal strategy. In the case of Nottingham, the modernisation of management methods and the development of lacemaking skills went hand-in-hand with heritage work, as it did in Calais, where we find exactly the same experiment. In fact, the only cities where the pure version of this strategy might be found would be some of the “art cities”, where heritage renovation and related activities, such as the artistic trades, play the central role. Moreover, a strategy based almost exclusively on culture is unlikely to be sufficient for long. In La Rochelle, the development of port facilities and the university campus broadened the city’s development prospects, which could not rely solely on restoring its physical heritage. Paradoxically, we may say that a strategy of this type, where culture plays the central role, will be more feasible for a smaller city, where the tourism dimension will be seen as its salvation. 134 CULTURE AND LOCAL DEVELOPMENT - ISBN 92-64-00990-6 - © OECD 2005
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Culture and Local Development
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ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERAT
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Table of Contents Executive Summary
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY the operation of
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY new projects; and
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY is the fact that
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY A new agenda for
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INTRODUCTION Yet these attitudes gr
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INTRODUCTION a basis for developmen
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INTRODUCTION Defining cultural reso
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INTRODUCTION - the one where cultur
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ISBN 92-64-00990-6 CULTURE AND LOCA
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1. USING A TERRITORY’S CULTURE TO
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Chapter 2 Local development based o
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2. LOCAL DEVELOPMENT BASED ON ATTRA
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Annex 2 CHAPTER 3: PROMOTING LOCAL
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ANNEX 2 The second measure is given
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