Child Poverty in Mozambique. A Situation and Trend ... - Unicef

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Box 2.2: More frequent and cost-effective poverty measurement - the “CWIQ” Measurement of national poverty rates using large and detailed household surveys such as the IAF is prohibitively expensive and time consuming – hence the six year cycle for the IAF. However, monitoring PARPA implementation and progress towards the MDGs requires more frequent observations. Simler et al. (2004) show that “light” surveys such as the Core Welfare Indicator Questionnaire (CWIQ, known as QUIBB in Portuguese), which collects data on a number of variables that are correlated with poverty but is much less onerous to collect and process than income or expenditure data, can be used to produce relatively accurate predicted national poverty levels. Through the 2000/01 CWIQ, the predicted national poverty headcount stood at 61 per cent. Much more recently, Mathiassen and Øvensen (2006) applied the same methodology to the 2004/2005 IFTRAB data (which include a CWIQ module), producing a predicted headcount of about 50 per cent, with predicted falls in urban and rural poverty of 5 percentage points and 4 percentage points respectively compared to 2002/03 levels (see Table 2.2). While poverty reduction trends are encouraging, important geographical disparities and high levels of vulnerability remain, principally as a result of the sheer depth of poverty from which the country is emerging. Although the northern and central regions of the country enjoyed significant reductions in poverty between 1996/97 and 2002/03, the southern region saw a slight increase in poverty levels, resulting in the highest overall poverty headcount of the three regions in 2002/03. This observed decline in average consumption in the southern region was probably the combined result of drought in the year before the second 2002/3 survey, the devastating floods of 2000 and the substantial depreciation of the Metical in relation to the South African Rand during the period of the survey. This goes to illustrate a key point, rightly emphasised in the PARPA II poverty analysis. Despite a strong overall positive trend in poverty reduction, the poor and many of those judged to be just above the poverty line remain highly vulnerable to adverse shocks and as a result, there are likely to be large regional fluctuations in quantitative indicators of poverty from year to year. Sofala province in the central region has been subject to particularly dramatic fluctuations, experiencing severe flooding in advance of the 1996/97 IAF survey, which, together with a spike in food prices at the time of the survey, contributed to its very high observed rates of poverty, which fell dramatically in the second 2002/2003 IAF survey (GoM et al., 2004). As a result, the Sofala poverty headcount leapt from last place in 1996/97 (87.9 per cent) to first place in 2002/03 (36.1 per cent). It is therefore not surprising that, when households in Sofala were later questioned in a qualitative survey, their subjective assessments of their own well-being did not fully endorse the quantitative evidence of progress provided in the household surveys (Mate et al., 2005). What initially seems an impressive reduction in poverty can also be interpreted as a recovery from a large adverse shock. 15 This finding also raised a debate about the correlation between poverty and HIV/AIDS, as Sofala province is by far the most affected by the AIDS pandemic. It should also be noted that the statistical confidence levels associated with the national and regional poverty estimates are tighter than those for the provincial estimates, meaning that there is a greater certainty about the national poverty levels and trends than about provincial ones (Simler and Arndt, 2005). 15 This vulnerability has lead some authors to advocate the inclusion of a measure of the threat of poverty in order to capture this ex-ante risk to households – see for example Calvo and Dercon (2005). CHILDHOOD POVERTY IN MOZAMBIQUE: A SITUATION AND TRENDS ANALYSIS 45
Arndt et al. (2005) show that, on average, there are seasonal variations in household calorie consumption over the course of the agricultural season, and that these are particularly marked in the central region. While the authors find that most households are able to use food stocks, savings or asset sales to maintain consistent consumption, they find that the ability to do so depends upon household income. The poor find it harder to maintain a steady calorific intake over the year. Another important indicator showing that the overall poverty reduction did not equally benefit all segments of the population is that poverty reduced much more significantly among male-headed households than female households. Female headed households represent about 30 per cent of all households in Mozambique (IFTRAB 2004/2005). While poverty reduced by 26 per cent in male headed households (from about 70 per cent in 1996/97 to 52 per cent in 2002/03), it only reduced by 6 per cent in female headed households (from about 67 per cent to 63 per cent between 1996/97 to 2002/03). This is particularly worrying, as orphaned children are largely found in female headed households. The 2004/2005 IFTRAB indicated that 54 per cent of all orphaned children were living in households headed by women compared to 46 per cent in households headed by men. Figure 2.7: Percentage of household living below the poverty line according to male-headed and female-headed households 80 % 60 72.1 61 69.9 66.9 66.5 66.8 62.9 61.8 62.5 53.5 48.4 51.9 40 20 0 Male-headed rural Male-headed urban Male-headed total Female-headed rural Female-headed urban Female-headed total 1996/1997 2002/2003 Source: GoM et al. (1998) and Chiconela (2004) Higher poverty among female headed households is the result of their lower levels of education, lack of earning power due to widowhood and associated higher dependency ratios (Bardasi, Fox & Van den Broeck, 2005). It may also be related to the fact that female headed households are disproportionately taking on the burden of caring for orphaned children. These results are supported by Walker et al. (2004) who find that, in rural areas, widow-headed households (45 per cent of all female-headed households) are particularly disadvantaged, with 30 per cent less income than maleheaded households. Of women of active age (aged 15 – 59), overall levels of participation in the workforce (82 per cent) are higher than men’s (78.8 per cent), despite the additional burden of domestic work faced by women. Women’s participation in the labour force is concentrated in subsistence agriculture in rural areas, where women make up 62.1 46 CHILDHOOD POVERTY IN MOZAMBIQUE: A SITUATION AND TRENDS ANALYSIS
Page 1: CHILDHOOD POVERTY IN MOZAMBIQUE A S
Page 5 and 6: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This report on the
Page 7 and 8: CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………
Page 9 and 10: 4. Access to schooling and attendan
Page 11 and 12: TABLES AND FIGURES List of tables T
Page 13 and 14: Figure 4.20: Estimated spending on
Page 15 and 16: GBS GDP GER GNI GoM HAART HDI HIPC
Page 17 and 18: MAP OF MOZAMBIQUE Zumbu Magoe M
Page 19 and 20: een strongly positive in recent yea
Page 21 and 22: Child protection concerns Chapter F
Page 23 and 24: vaccination or malaria campaigns, w
Page 25 and 26: 1. Objective of the Situation Analy
Page 27 and 28: Box 1.1: Human rights conventions r
Page 29 and 30: of poverty, defined as: “Impossib
Page 31 and 32: Table 1.1: Deprivation-based indica
Page 33 and 34: The Ministries of Planning and Deve
Page 35 and 36: 34 CHILDHOOD POVERTY IN MOZAMBIQUE:
Page 37 and 38: 1. Introduction This chapter focuse
Page 39 and 40: Table 2.1: Progress towards the MDG
Page 41 and 42: 3. Economic growth and macroeconomi
Page 43 and 44: Evidence as to what extent these
Page 45: The percentage of the population li
Page 49 and 50: B. Assessing childhood poverty In a
Page 51 and 52: Figure 2.9: Households living below
Page 53 and 54: severe deprivation. In the poorest
Page 55 and 56: The second PARPA for the period 200
Page 57 and 58: Box 2.3: Civil society engagement i
Page 59 and 60: A key cause of these weaknesses is
Page 61 and 62: One possible way forward in tacklin
Page 63 and 64: Box 2.4: Corruption and its impact
Page 65 and 66: (vi) Analysis of monitoring and rev
Page 67 and 68: There are two principal drivers beh
Page 69 and 70: This has troubling implications for
Page 71 and 72: 70 CHILDHOOD POVERTY IN MOZAMBIQUE:
Page 73 and 74: 1. Introduction Every child has the
Page 75 and 76: B. Severe nutrition deprivation amo
Page 77 and 78: Zambezia and Tete provinces. Severe
Page 79 and 80: If this downward trend continues, M
Page 81 and 82: Figure 3.5: Percentage of women rec
Page 83 and 84: Mozambique has achieved a continual
Page 85 and 86: The second reason is that deaths oc
Page 87 and 88: 5. Childhood illnesses A major publ
Page 89 and 90: Figure 3.9: Malaria prevention: use
Page 91 and 92: The 2005 Nutrition Survey conducted
Page 93 and 94: Box 3.3: Combating measles and poli
Page 95 and 96: (ii) Stunting prevalence (chronic m
Page 97 and 98:
Alarmingly high levels of stunting
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Figure 3.16: Underweight prevalence
Page 101 and 102:
There are 86 known salt producers r
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Among children, there were no varia
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Box 3.5: Infant feeding in the cont
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highly in PARPA II, which sets a ta
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Table 3.3: Overview of PMTCT progra
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The reduction of mother-to-child tr
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It is only recently that paediatric
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100 Figure 3.22: Use of safe water
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A. Inequitable access to and fundin
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The 2004/2005 IFTRAB survey also su
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provincial level reported that only
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Table 3.4: Ministry of Health budge
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Figure 3.29: Total sector resources
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Figure 3.31: Indicative per capita
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The agenda for expanding water supp
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and was revised in 2005. The on-bud
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supported by key sector stakeholder
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1. Introduction Education is a fund
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B. Severe information deprivation a
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Secondary education consists of fiv
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Table 4.3: Gross and net enrolment
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Table 4.4: Gross enrolment ratio, a
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57 per cent, compared with a NER of
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DHS data show that the wealth level
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Figure 4.11: Distribution of 11-yea
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Lack of literacy is directly correl
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In addition, there is a serious gap
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The IAF showed that in 2002/3 expen
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Absenteeism is also common among te
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to the need for two or even three s
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The system is faced with a number o
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• The school represents or is a l
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(iv) Impact of natural disasters In
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The associated large off-budget res
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The Ministry of Education and Cultu
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sense of providing education for ev
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172 CHILDHOOD POVERTY IN MOZAMBIQUE
Page 175 and 176:
I. Introduction All children have t
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involving children. 45 per cent of
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Box 5.1: Street children in Maputo:
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Girls at greatest risk of abuse wer
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The aspirations expressed by the yo
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Against this background, Caia and C
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“Trafficking in women and childre
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Mozambique, girls aged 15-19 in the
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The survey indicates that 32 per ce
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Figure 5.5: School attendance among
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• Labour law does not define the
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- To use child labour (children age
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from their parents. Thus, the law d
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C. Birth registration - guaranteein
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such as hospitals and schools for b
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Sofala province also accounts for t
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Evidence points to worrying increas
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Figure 5.9: Primary school attendan
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activities to strengthen the capaci
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The responsibility for implementing
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214 CHILDHOOD POVERTY IN MOZAMBIQUE
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Conclusions Mozambique is one of Af
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planning in Mozambique, and has the
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7- Implementing social communicatio
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Form of Severe Deprivation Food Wat
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ANNEX II Calendar of the planning,
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ANNEX IV State Budget recurrent and
Page 229 and 230:
REFERENCES AND MATERIALS CONSULTED
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Deaton, A., Ruiz-Castilo, J., and T
Page 233 and 234:
Klasen, S. and Woltermann, S., ‘T
Page 235 and 236:
Government of Mozambique, ‘Progra
Page 237 and 238:
World Bank (WB), ‘World Developme
Page 239 and 240:
World Bank (WB), ‘Mozambique Publ
Page 241 and 242:
Ministry of Women and Co-ordination
Page 243:
United Nations Children’s Fund (U
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Child Poverty in Mozambique. A Situation and Trend ... - Unicef

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