Child Poverty in Mozambique. A Situation and Trend ... - Unicef

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per cent of the working population, while men predominate in all the other major sectors of the economy, where earning potential is higher. Women in the labour force have lower educational levels than men, with 15.1 per cent of men in the workforce having attained upper primary education or better compared with only 4.5 per cent of participating women (GoM, 2006). Disparities between households nationwide have been examined by James et al. (2005), who measure changes in inequality between the two IAF surveys. The authors note that while all sections of society enjoyed a rapid annual increase in consumption between the sample periods with real per capita growth averaging over 3 per cent annually, the rate of growth in consumption was slightly higher for richer households. This has led to a moderate, though not statistically significant, increase in inequality at the national level while inequality in real consumption between provinces and regions has diminished over time. Ibraimo (2005) supports this result, finding that the coefficient of regional variation for a wide range of socioeconomic indicators has fallen. Simler and Nhate (2005) find that of the total inequality in Mozambique, between 83 per cent and 86 per cent occurs within districts rather than between districts: i.e. poor households typically live alongside non-poor ones, showing that poverty and inequality in Mozambique are widely distributed phenomena and calling into question the feasibility of geographic targeting of anti-poverty efforts at “poor areas.” Intra-household inequality, though not easily assessed, is also of particular concern in relation to children. A recent study by Nhate et al. (2005) examines potential discrimination in resource allocation within households against children who are not biological descendants of the household head. 16 The rationale behind the study is that the AIDS pandemic is significantly increasing the number of orphaned children and that many will reside in families where the household head is not their biological parent. Government policy is based on the extended family being the first preference in care for orphans and institutionalisation of children being a last resort (GoM, 2004a). The authors’ results point to discrimination within poor households in the intra-household allocation of resources against children who are not the direct biological descendants of the household head. This discrimination is identified at the national, rural, and urban levels. AIDS is likely to aggravate the problem over the next decade by substantially increasing the number of children requiring care from neighbours, friends, and relatives due to the death of one or more of their parents. The authors conclude that assistance should be targeted towards children who are not the biological descendants of the household head, particularly those who are only attending school irregularly, if at all. Two broad conclusions follow. Firstly, the precarious status of many households implies that the overall objective of poverty reduction should include direct efforts to protect poor households from shocks, particularly female headed households, allowing them to maintain an adequate and relatively stable standard of living (e.g. targeted cash transfers). However, the broad distribution of childhood poverty and inequality and the very low population density in rural areas mean that policies targeting the poorest and most vulnerable children need to be designed very carefully. Secondly, measurement of poverty should not rely on any single indicator or observation; a more pluralistic approach is required, not least because a large adverse regional shock to one of the two most populous provinces – Nampula and Zambezia – in advance of the next household survey could have a big impact on the decline in the national poverty trend. 16 While it is not normally possible to distinguish between household members using IAF data, the authors manage to do so by examining changes in expenditure on adult-goods following the addition of an extra child to the household – the “outlay equivalence” method (Deaton et al., 1989). CHILDHOOD POVERTY IN MOZAMBIQUE: A SITUATION AND TRENDS ANALYSIS 47
B. Assessing childhood poverty In addressing childhood poverty, it is vital to analyse whether the above picture in relation to overall poverty in Mozambique reflects the picture for childhood poverty. This is done in two ways. Firstly, estimates of childhood poverty are presented drawn from the IAF using the official consumption-based measure. Secondly, childhood poverty is assessed using the Bristol Indicators, adapted for Mozambique. (i) Consumption-based measurement Child poverty headcount estimates were prepared based on the two household surveys. As noted above, the IAF does not measure the allocation of resources within the household directly and therefore measures apply only to an “average” household member. Thus, every child that lives in a household categorised as non-poor is considered to be non-poor. In line with national trends, the consumption-measure indicates that the level of child poverty decreased significantly between 1996/1997 and 2002/2003. It also indicates, however, that the level of poverty among children remains significantly higher than among adults, with 58 per cent of children living in poverty compared to 49 per cent among adults in 2002/2003. Further, the gap between children and adults did not close between 1996/1997 and 2002/2003, with both groups witnessing a decrease of 22 per cent in poverty level. The decrease in poverty levels was more pronounced in rural areas (decrease by 24 per cent) than in urban areas (decrease by 16 per cent). Considerable disparities exist between provinces, with the percentage of children living in poverty increasing over the period 1996/1997 to 2002/2003 in Cabo Delgado province, Maputo province and Maputo City. In these three provinces, poverty among children increased more than among adults. In Maputo province, the gap between children and adults is notable, with the percentage of children living in poverty increasing by 9 per cent compared with only 2 per cent among adults. Table 2.3: Total, adult and child poverty headcounts, 1996/1997 – 2002/2003 1996-1997 2002-2003 Decrease in percentage All Adult Children All Adult Children All Adult Children Niassa 70.6 65.5 75.0 52.1 47.5 55.6 -26.2 -27.5 -25.9 Cabo Delgado 57.4 50.3 65.4 63.2 54.1 72.8 10.1 7.6 11.3 Nampula 68.9 62.0 75.0 52.6 47.4 57.2 -23.7 -23.5 -23.7 Zambezia 68.1 60.4 75.0 44.6 39.2 48.8 -34.5 -35.1 -34.9 Tete 82.3 77.2 85.7 59.8 55.9 62.8 -27.3 -27.6 -26.7 Manica 62.6 56.8 66.4 43.6 40.0 46.5 -30.4 -29.6 -30.0 Sofala 87.9 85.2 90.2 36.1 32.6 39.2 -58.9 -61.7 -56.5 Inhambane 82.6 78.5 85.6 80.7 76.9 84.3 -2.3 -2.0 -1.5 Gaza 64.6 62.1 66.4 60.1 55.7 64.0 -7.0 -10.3 -3.6 Map. Province 65.6 64.1 67.3 69.3 65.3 73.6 5.6 1.9 9.4 Map. City 47.8 42.9 51.9 53.6 48.5 59.9 12.1 13.1 15.4 Urban 62.0 57.0 65.7 51.5 47.4 55.5 -16.9 -16.8 -15.5 Rural 71.3 65.1 77.6 55.3 50.5 59.4 -22.4 -22.4 -2 3.5 National 69.4 63.5 74.4 54.1 49.4 58.2 -22.0 -22.2 -21.8 Source: IAF 1996/97, 2002/03. 48 CHILDHOOD POVERTY IN MOZAMBIQUE: A SITUATION AND TRENDS ANALYSIS
Page 1: CHILDHOOD POVERTY IN MOZAMBIQUE A S
Page 5 and 6: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This report on the
Page 7 and 8: CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………
Page 9 and 10: 4. Access to schooling and attendan
Page 11 and 12: TABLES AND FIGURES List of tables T
Page 13 and 14: Figure 4.20: Estimated spending on
Page 15 and 16: GBS GDP GER GNI GoM HAART HDI HIPC
Page 17 and 18: MAP OF MOZAMBIQUE Zumbu Magoe M
Page 19 and 20: een strongly positive in recent yea
Page 21 and 22: Child protection concerns Chapter F
Page 23 and 24: vaccination or malaria campaigns, w
Page 25 and 26: 1. Objective of the Situation Analy
Page 27 and 28: Box 1.1: Human rights conventions r
Page 29 and 30: of poverty, defined as: “Impossib
Page 31 and 32: Table 1.1: Deprivation-based indica
Page 33 and 34: The Ministries of Planning and Deve
Page 35 and 36: 34 CHILDHOOD POVERTY IN MOZAMBIQUE:
Page 37 and 38: 1. Introduction This chapter focuse
Page 39 and 40: Table 2.1: Progress towards the MDG
Page 41 and 42: 3. Economic growth and macroeconomi
Page 43 and 44: Evidence as to what extent these
Page 45 and 46: The percentage of the population li
Page 47: Arndt et al. (2005) show that, on a
Page 51 and 52: Figure 2.9: Households living below
Page 53 and 54: severe deprivation. In the poorest
Page 55 and 56: The second PARPA for the period 200
Page 57 and 58: Box 2.3: Civil society engagement i
Page 59 and 60: A key cause of these weaknesses is
Page 61 and 62: One possible way forward in tacklin
Page 63 and 64: Box 2.4: Corruption and its impact
Page 65 and 66: (vi) Analysis of monitoring and rev
Page 67 and 68: There are two principal drivers beh
Page 69 and 70: This has troubling implications for
Page 71 and 72: 70 CHILDHOOD POVERTY IN MOZAMBIQUE:
Page 73 and 74: 1. Introduction Every child has the
Page 75 and 76: B. Severe nutrition deprivation amo
Page 77 and 78: Zambezia and Tete provinces. Severe
Page 79 and 80: If this downward trend continues, M
Page 81 and 82: Figure 3.5: Percentage of women rec
Page 83 and 84: Mozambique has achieved a continual
Page 85 and 86: The second reason is that deaths oc
Page 87 and 88: 5. Childhood illnesses A major publ
Page 89 and 90: Figure 3.9: Malaria prevention: use
Page 91 and 92: The 2005 Nutrition Survey conducted
Page 93 and 94: Box 3.3: Combating measles and poli
Page 95 and 96: (ii) Stunting prevalence (chronic m
Page 97 and 98: Alarmingly high levels of stunting
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Figure 3.16: Underweight prevalence
Page 101 and 102:
There are 86 known salt producers r
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Among children, there were no varia
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Box 3.5: Infant feeding in the cont
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highly in PARPA II, which sets a ta
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Table 3.3: Overview of PMTCT progra
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The reduction of mother-to-child tr
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It is only recently that paediatric
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100 Figure 3.22: Use of safe water
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A. Inequitable access to and fundin
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The 2004/2005 IFTRAB survey also su
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provincial level reported that only
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Table 3.4: Ministry of Health budge
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Figure 3.29: Total sector resources
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Figure 3.31: Indicative per capita
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The agenda for expanding water supp
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and was revised in 2005. The on-bud
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supported by key sector stakeholder
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1. Introduction Education is a fund
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B. Severe information deprivation a
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Secondary education consists of fiv
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Table 4.3: Gross and net enrolment
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Table 4.4: Gross enrolment ratio, a
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57 per cent, compared with a NER of
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DHS data show that the wealth level
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Figure 4.11: Distribution of 11-yea
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Lack of literacy is directly correl
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In addition, there is a serious gap
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The IAF showed that in 2002/3 expen
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Absenteeism is also common among te
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to the need for two or even three s
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The system is faced with a number o
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• The school represents or is a l
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(iv) Impact of natural disasters In
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The associated large off-budget res
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The Ministry of Education and Cultu
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sense of providing education for ev
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172 CHILDHOOD POVERTY IN MOZAMBIQUE
Page 175 and 176:
I. Introduction All children have t
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involving children. 45 per cent of
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Box 5.1: Street children in Maputo:
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Girls at greatest risk of abuse wer
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The aspirations expressed by the yo
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Against this background, Caia and C
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“Trafficking in women and childre
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Mozambique, girls aged 15-19 in the
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The survey indicates that 32 per ce
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Figure 5.5: School attendance among
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• Labour law does not define the
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- To use child labour (children age
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from their parents. Thus, the law d
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C. Birth registration - guaranteein
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such as hospitals and schools for b
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Sofala province also accounts for t
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Evidence points to worrying increas
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Figure 5.9: Primary school attendan
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activities to strengthen the capaci
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The responsibility for implementing
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214 CHILDHOOD POVERTY IN MOZAMBIQUE
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Conclusions Mozambique is one of Af
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planning in Mozambique, and has the
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7- Implementing social communicatio
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Form of Severe Deprivation Food Wat
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ANNEX II Calendar of the planning,
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ANNEX IV State Budget recurrent and
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REFERENCES AND MATERIALS CONSULTED
Page 231 and 232:
Deaton, A., Ruiz-Castilo, J., and T
Page 233 and 234:
Klasen, S. and Woltermann, S., ‘T
Page 235 and 236:
Government of Mozambique, ‘Progra
Page 237 and 238:
World Bank (WB), ‘World Developme
Page 239 and 240:
World Bank (WB), ‘Mozambique Publ
Page 241 and 242:
Ministry of Women and Co-ordination
Page 243:
United Nations Children’s Fund (U
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