Islamic Political Identity in Turkey

the matrix of turkish islamic movements 139the Kemalist revolution, there were 305 SuW lodges in Istanbul, 65 of which wereNak7ibendi. 32 This was more than any other order. 33The Nak7ibendis’ modern revival is a search for an “authentic” identity aswell as a struggle for control of resources. Whereas nineteenth-century revivalismfocused on political transformation, modern Islamic movements seek socialand economic power that sometimes can be used to shape the policies ofthe state. During the War of Liberation, the Nak7ibendis played a critical role inthe mobilization of the populace. The Özbek Tekkesi in Üsküdar, for instance,provided shelter for high-ranking Turkish oYcials escaping the occupying AlliedForces. 8smet 8nönü, Mustafa Kemal’s deputy, stayed in this lodge, and itoVered logistical support to many other nationalist Wgures. 34 Some other prominentNak7ibendi leaders took an active part in the War of Liberation. For example,Hasan Feyzi Efendi of Erzincan led the mobilization against occupationtroops in Erzincan and Bayburt. 35 The history of the Nak7ibendi order includesseveral breaks and renewals that have occurred during major sociopolitical upheavals.This ability to adjust to new situations along with an inherent intellectualXexibility has been able to neutralize the hostile propaganda of opponentswho seek to identify the movement as “fundamentalist” or an enemy of modernity.In spite of Western eVorts to use the captive sultan-caliph to neutralizenationalist opposition to foreign occupation, the Nak7ibendi orders fully supportedthe Turkish War of Liberation. Turks and Kurds fought side by side inthe war, and Muslims from as far aWeld as India provided their assistance inthe name of a defensive jihad. This facet of the Liberation War later was elidedcompletely by Kemalist historians who sought to erase the memory of the religiousbasis of Turkish resistance in this formative period of the Republic. 36 TheKemalist establishment always has been particularly fearful of the Nak7ibendimovement, because the Nak7ibendis were able to demonstrate their continuingability to arouse mass resistance across ethnic and tribal lines in their protestsagainst the radical antireligious programs of the Republican elite from 1925through 1930.Kemalist Persecution: Silent Transformation of the Order, 1930–1960sOne of the most signiWcant consequences of the birth of the Turkish Republicunder Mustafa Kemal was a sustained campaign against traditional Islamicinstitutions, SuW orders being one of the chief targets. Under Legal Code 677,the Republic closed SuW lodges on November 30, 1925, later replacing them withthe Halkevleri, or People’s Houses, which promoted radical secularization andobedience to the new state elite. Despite oYcial purges of religious Wgures andinstitutions, the Nak7ibendi order managed to lead or incite many rebellionsagainst the radical reforms. According to Re7at Halli, between 1924 and 193818 such rebellions against the draconian policies of the state took place, and mostwere led by the Nak7ibendi orders. 37The most important of these rebellions were the Sheik Said rebellion (1925)and the Menemen rebellion (1930). These incidents, in particular the Menemen