Final Report of the International Commission on the - Minority Rights ...

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suppressed, as were all nondenominational clubs and associations. The general democratic and moderate press in <strong>the</strong> region fared no better: most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> local press organs and periodicals were transformed into mouthpieces <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> chauvinistic Right. The discriminatory measures affected <strong>the</strong> Jews particularly harshly in <strong>the</strong>ir economic and educational pursuits. While those in business and <strong>the</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essions managed to make ends meet by circumventing <strong>the</strong> laws or taking advantage <strong>of</strong> loopholes, civil servants, with a few exceptions, were dismissed, and students in secondary and higher education found <strong>the</strong>mselves almost totally excluded from <strong>the</strong> state educational system. The heavy hand <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Hungarian military authorities was felt particularly in <strong>the</strong> four counties <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Szekely area, which <strong>the</strong> Hungarians considered “sacred.” The Jews <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> area were subjected to a review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir citizenship status; as a result many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m found <strong>the</strong>mselves in custody because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir “doubtful” citizenship. Particularly hard hit was <strong>the</strong> Jewish community <strong>of</strong> Miercurea-Ciuc, where dozens <strong>of</strong> families were rounded up and expelled. But harsh as <strong>the</strong>se many anti-Jewish measures were <strong>the</strong>y were overshadowed by <strong>the</strong> forced labor service system Hungary introduced in 1939. During <strong>the</strong> first two years <strong>of</strong> its operation, <strong>the</strong> Jewish recruits <strong>of</strong> military age, though subjected to many discriminatory measures, fared relatively well. After Hungary’s involvement in <strong>the</strong> war against Yugoslavia in April 1941, however, <strong>the</strong> system acquired a punitive character. The Jewish labor servicemen were compelled to serve in <strong>the</strong>ir own civilian clo<strong>the</strong>s: <strong>the</strong>y were supplied with an insignia-free military cap and instead <strong>of</strong> arms <strong>the</strong>y were equipped with shovels and pickaxes. For identification <strong>the</strong> Jews were required to wear a yellow armband; <strong>the</strong> converts and <strong>the</strong> Christians identified as Jews under <strong>the</strong> racial laws had to wear a white one. Shortly after Hungary joined <strong>the</strong> Third Reich in <strong>the</strong> war against <strong>the</strong> Soviet Union (June 27, 1941), <strong>the</strong> labor service system was also used as a means to “solve” <strong>the</strong> Jewish question. Many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jews recruited for service were called up on an individual basis ra<strong>the</strong>r than by age group. By this practice <strong>the</strong> military-governmental authorities paid special attention to calling up <strong>the</strong> rich, <strong>the</strong> prominent pr<strong>of</strong>essionals, <strong>the</strong> leading industrialists and businessmen, <strong>the</strong> well-known Zionist and community leaders, and above all those who had been denounced by <strong>the</strong> local Christians as “objectionable” elements. Many among <strong>the</strong>se Jewish recruits were totally unfit for labor or any o<strong>the</strong>r service, and eventually perished in <strong>the</strong> Ukraine, Serbia, and elsewhere. No data are available on <strong>the</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>rn Transylvanian Jewish casualties <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> labor service system. The Jewish community <strong>of</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>rn Transylvania also suffered in <strong>the</strong> wake <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> campaign <strong>the</strong> Hungarian authorities conducted against “alien” Jews in <strong>the</strong> summer <strong>of</strong> 1941. Especially hard hit were many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> communities in Maramureş and Satu Mare counties, where an indeterminate number <strong>of</strong> Jews were rounded up as “aliens.” They were among <strong>the</strong> 16,000 to 18,000 Jews who were deported from all over Hungary to near Kamenets-Podolsk, where most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m were murdered in late August 1941. Despite <strong>the</strong> many casualties and discriminatory measures, however, <strong>the</strong> bulk <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jews <strong>of</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>rn Transylvania, like those <strong>of</strong> Hungary as a whole, lived in relative physical safety, convinced that <strong>the</strong>y would continue to enjoy <strong>the</strong> protection <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> conservative-aristocratic government. This conviction was shattered almost immediately after <strong>the</strong> German occupation <strong>of</strong> Hungary on March 19, 1944. The <strong>Final</strong> Solution The occupation <strong>of</strong> Hungary was to a large extent based on German military considerations. Hitler was resolved to prevent Hungary from extricating itself from <strong>the</strong> Axis Alliance – a goal <strong>the</strong> Hungarians pursued after <strong>the</strong> crushing defeat <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Hungarian Second Army at Voronezh in January 1943 and especially after Italy’s successful extrication from <strong>the</strong> alliance in <strong>the</strong> summer <strong>of</strong> that year. The occupation itself was preceded by a meeting between Hitler and Horthy at Schloss Klesheim on March 18 during which <strong>the</strong> Hungarian head <strong>of</strong> state, confronted with a fait accompli, not only yielded to <strong>the</strong> Führer’s
ultimatum but also consented to <strong>the</strong> delivery <strong>of</strong> a few hundred thousand “Jewish workers for employment in German industrial and agricultural enterprises.” It was largely this agreement that <strong>the</strong> Garman and Hungarian <strong>of</strong>ficials exploited as a “legal framework” for <strong>the</strong> implementation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Final</strong> Solution in Hungary. Because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> worsening military situation – <strong>the</strong> Red Army was already approaching <strong>the</strong> borders <strong>of</strong> Romania – <strong>the</strong> Nazis and <strong>the</strong>ir Hungarian accomplices decided to implement <strong>the</strong> “solution” <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jewish question in Hungary at lightning speed. On <strong>the</strong> German side, <strong>the</strong> SS commando that was entrusted with this mission was under <strong>the</strong> leadership <strong>of</strong> SS-Obersturmbannführer Adolf Eichmann. Although it was ra<strong>the</strong>r small – <strong>the</strong> commando consisted <strong>of</strong> only around 100 SS-men – it was successful in carrying out its mission primarily because it had received <strong>the</strong> wholehearted support <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> newly established Hungarian government. The government <strong>of</strong> Döme Sztójay, which Horthy constitutionally appointed on March 22, 1944, placed <strong>the</strong> instruments <strong>of</strong> state power – <strong>the</strong> gendarmerie, police, and civil service—at <strong>the</strong> disposal <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Nazis. In addition, it issued a series <strong>of</strong> anti-Jewish decrees, which were calculated to bring about <strong>the</strong> isolation, marking, expropriation, and ghettoization <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jews prior to <strong>the</strong>ir mass deportation. For logistical reasons, <strong>the</strong> drive against <strong>the</strong> Jews was based on a territorial basis determined by <strong>the</strong> ten gendarmerie districts into which <strong>the</strong> country was divided. These districts, in turn, were divided into six anti-Jewish operational zones. Nor<strong>the</strong>rn Transylvania encompassed Gendarmerie Districts IX and X, and constituted Operational Zone II. The details <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> anti-Jewish drive as well as some aspects <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> deportation process were worked out on April 4 at a joint German-Hungarian meeting held in <strong>the</strong> Ministry <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Interior under <strong>the</strong> chairmanship <strong>of</strong> László Baky, an Undersecretary <strong>of</strong> State in <strong>the</strong> Ministry <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Interior. Among <strong>the</strong> participants was Lt. Col. László Ferenczy, <strong>the</strong> gendarmerie <strong>of</strong>ficer in charge <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ghettoization and deportation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jews. The draft document relating to <strong>the</strong> roundup, ghettoization, concentration, and deportation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jews- -<strong>the</strong> basis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> April 4 discussion--was prepared by László Endre, ano<strong>the</strong>r Undersecretary <strong>of</strong> State in <strong>the</strong> Ministry <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Interior. It was issued secretly as Decree No. 6163/1944.res. on April 7 over <strong>the</strong> signature <strong>of</strong> Baky. This document, addressed to <strong>the</strong> representatives <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> local organs <strong>of</strong> state power, spelled out <strong>the</strong> procedures to be followed in <strong>the</strong> campaign to bring about <strong>the</strong> <strong>Final</strong> Solution <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jewish question in Hungary. Supplementary specific details about <strong>the</strong> measures to be taken against <strong>the</strong> Jews were spelled out in several highly confidential directives, emphasizing that <strong>the</strong> Jews destined for deportation were to be rounded up without regard to sex, age or illness. The Minister <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Interior issued directives for <strong>the</strong> implementation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> decree three days before <strong>the</strong> top-secret decree was actually sent out. In a secret order, <strong>the</strong> Minister instructed all <strong>the</strong> subordinate mayoral, police, and gendarmerie organs to bring about <strong>the</strong> registration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jews by <strong>the</strong> appropriate local Jewish institutions. These lists, containing all family members, exact addresses, and <strong>the</strong> mo<strong>the</strong>r's name <strong>of</strong> all those listed, were to be prepared in four copies, with one copy to be handed over to <strong>the</strong> local police authorities, one to <strong>the</strong> appropriate gendarmerie command, and a third to be forwarded to <strong>the</strong> Ministry <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Interior. To make sure that no Jews would escape <strong>the</strong> net, <strong>the</strong> Minister <strong>of</strong> Supply also issued a registration order, allegedly to regulate <strong>the</strong> allocation <strong>of</strong> food for <strong>the</strong> Jews. Unaware <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sinister implications <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se lists as well as <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> wearing <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Yellow Star <strong>of</strong> David—<strong>the</strong> two interrelated measures designed to facilitate <strong>the</strong>ir isolation and ghettoization—<strong>the</strong> Jewish masses <strong>of</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>rn Transylvania, like <strong>the</strong>ir co-religionists elsewhere in <strong>the</strong> country, complied with <strong>the</strong> measures taken by <strong>the</strong>ir local Jewish communal leaders. In contrast to <strong>the</strong> national leaders <strong>of</strong> Hungarian Jewry, who were fully informed, <strong>the</strong> local community leaders were as much in <strong>the</strong> dark about <strong>the</strong> scope <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se measures as <strong>the</strong> masses <strong>the</strong>y led. In <strong>the</strong> smaller Jewish communities, especially in <strong>the</strong> villages, it
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Final Repo
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Germany’s war against the
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which includes reputed experts led
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BACKGROUND AND PRECURSORS TO THE HO
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against which antisemites in <stron
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declaring in the p
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them. Thus, he con
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We must organize ourselves for a wa
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ureaucracy of wart
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this direction by Nicolae C. Paules
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promising leader of</strong
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organized a tariff and tax strike.
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Legion of
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less so in Romanian society as a wh
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This ambiguous, self-contradictory
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The Gigurtu government began to con
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The Case of Român
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Cuza’s argument that it is possib
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Românesc,” Sociologie Româneasc
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ole in the early 1
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European states, notably Romania an
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Germany's immediate interests at <s
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eligious communities, the</
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counterpart, “when [he] first met
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de Istorie şi Arheologie, “A. D.
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Romania. Muler to Luthe</st
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demands on territorial revisions an
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military mission to come to Romania
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High Command, informing the
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The Jews and the R
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Romanian army. Thus, in Ciudei in <
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antisemitism in Romanian society an
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Ibid., fond Micro-films, roll I.II,
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manifestations of
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power, as this power colonized West
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attraction, many Jews resettled in
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to defend itself; hence its support
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about the Holocaus
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Nichifor Crainic, “Dupa douazeci
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Isaia Tolan, “Revizuirea incetate
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X. Y. Z., “Rezolvarea problemei e
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andom searches and arrests, robberi
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Bucharest Prefectura. Almost two th
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epression was not ordered by Antone
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from villages and small towns. On J
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accident; it was contrived by <stro
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The second train to leave Iasi for
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care of th
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"premilitary," were also placed at
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according to the o
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Tighina Agreement On August 30, Tra
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elieved Transnistria would be occup
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the 331,000 Ukrain
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those inside to take the</s
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[longer] move.” After several wee
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eappear a few seconds later and sig
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operation and that “some
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Bukovina and Bessarabia. Einsatzkom
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other things, <str
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Berezovka district and burn <strong
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them in exchange f
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transport of 2,000
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Bulgarian, Turkish, Italian, or Swi
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were at least 122,000 Jews. Bukovin
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Wilhelm Hoettl, The Secret Front: T
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Ancel, Documents, vol. 2: no. 136,
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Carp, Cartea neagra, vol. 3: pp. 30
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Gosudartsveni Archiv Odeskoi Oblast
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Cable from the Mil
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1-1087, p. 114; list of</st
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Ibid. “Rezolvarea problemei evrei
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child’s birth, would be considere
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Indeed, the system
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Romanianization instead of<
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Page 155 and 156: Conclusions The anti-Jewish legisla
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Page 163 and 164: except being defined as a Jew. I be
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Page 173 and 174: After coming to power, the<
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Page 181 and 182: Return of Roma Sur
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Page 185 and 186: in Romania. History and Contemporar
Page 187 and 188: THE ROLE OF ION ANTONESCU IN THE PL
Page 189 and 190: December 16, 1941, meeting
Page 191 and 192: me from carrying out the</s
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Page 197 and 198: THE HOLOCAUST IN NORTHERN TRANSYLVA
Page 199: Others 22 968 Magy
Page 203 and 204: military, political, and psychologi
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Page 209 and 210: authorities set up two ghettos in <
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Page 219 and 220: Câtcău Kackó Ciuc Csík Ciucea C
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Page 223 and 224: Bözödújfalu Bezidu Nou Budfalva
Page 225 and 226: Nagysajó Şieu (Bistrita-Nasaud Co
Page 227 and 228: (Indictment of Naz
Page 229 and 230: Randolph L. Braham, comp. and ed. (
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Page 233 and 234: Romanian government not to adopt <s
Page 235 and 236: still alive in the
Page 237 and 238: the Jews who worke
Page 239 and 240: We have been informed that various
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Page 243 and 244: Mitropolit pleaded with Mihai Anton
Page 245 and 246: Pozdnyakova, Yefrosiniya Starostina
Page 247 and 248: Ibid., pp. 224-225. Ibid., pp. 46-4
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escape with negligible punishment;
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immense scale, enslaved millions <s
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means. The “ethnic Christian stat
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it is evident that the</str
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face să pară evident că victimel
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viaţă, 100 milioane lei amendă
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Articolul 15 al Convenţiei de armi
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members accepted as authoritative s
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camp in January 1945, for several m
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Beginning in the 1
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such access was strictly supervised
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enefit from translation into Englis
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furthermore, he ha
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lucrative Jewish business ever,”
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deaths of thousand
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Treptow who was residing in Romania
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Finally, it must b
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A.) Integral Negationism Although <
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other genocides re
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mankind, such as wars; the<
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age of 44, only on
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After deploring the</strong
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Michael Shafir, “Ex Occidente Obs
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See, for example, Giurescu who make
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Randolph L. Braham, Romanian Nation
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Mediafax, March 18, 2002, Monitorul
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See Ibidem, pp. 3, 54-55. Ibidem, p
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Radu Theodoru, Mareşalul, Editura
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egained from the U
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was a record of an
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secondary school use. Those institu
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including erecting statues, mountin
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