Final Report of the International Commission on the - Minority Rights ...

More documents

Recommendations

Info

Forced Labor under <strong>the</strong> Antonescu Regime The Antonescu regime continued <strong>the</strong> forced labor campaign started under <strong>the</strong> National Legionary State. Jews were ordered to pay <strong>the</strong> so-called military taxes—<strong>of</strong>ficially levied because Jews were exempt from mandatory army service—and to do community work under army supervision. In total, 84,042 Jews, aged eighteen to fifty, were registered to supply free labor. Some Jews were ordered to work in <strong>the</strong>ir own towns, which was usually an opportunity for public humiliation, while o<strong>the</strong>rs had to work in labor camps on construction sites and in <strong>the</strong> fields, under military jurisdiction. Jewish labor detachments were used to build an extra set <strong>of</strong> railway tracks between such far-away towns as Bucharest and Craiova, Bucharest and Urziceni, or Bumbesti-Livezeni-Petrosani. Life and work conditions in <strong>the</strong>se camps were horrendous. Medical assistance was scarce and hygiene precarious. The sick and <strong>the</strong> crippled were sometimes forced to work and, as <strong>the</strong> “mobilization” was done in haste and with little bureaucratic organization, many workers had to wear <strong>the</strong>ir summer clo<strong>the</strong>s until December 1941, when labor camps were temporarily closed. In some camps, Jews had to buy <strong>the</strong>ir own tools and pay for <strong>the</strong>ir own food, and livable accommodation was provided only when guards and administrators were bribed. When work needed to be done around villages, rural notables (priests, teachers) usually expressed fear that Jews would be placed in peasant homes, concerned as <strong>the</strong>y were about <strong>the</strong> “destructive” influence Jews might have on peasants. Explicit orders were given that accommodation for Jewish workers could not be provided within a three-kilometer radius around Romanian villages. In exchange for an <strong>of</strong>ficial ransom, Jews declared “useful” to <strong>the</strong> economy were exempted from forced labor and allowed to have jobs. As <strong>the</strong> decision to grant “useful” status to a Jew was an important source <strong>of</strong> corruption, top military and civilian leadership vied for control <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> “revision process”—<strong>the</strong> review <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> situation <strong>of</strong> working Jews, which began in March 1942. The civilian bureaucracy, led by Radu Lecca who headed <strong>the</strong> government department charged with “solving <strong>the</strong> Jewish issue,” temporarily won <strong>the</strong> power struggle over <strong>the</strong> military, which never<strong>the</strong>less continued to be involved. This was in fact a state-sanctioned mechanism <strong>of</strong> extortion that enriched army and civilian bureaucrats who were empowered to establish <strong>the</strong> level <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ransom. It resulted in <strong>the</strong> streng<strong>the</strong>ning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> culture <strong>of</strong> bribery in <strong>the</strong> Romanian administrative and military systems, which contrasted violently with <strong>the</strong> tough stance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> regime. It was also decided that <strong>the</strong> ones unable to work or pay a high ransom were to be deported. In June 1942, <strong>the</strong> Chief <strong>of</strong> Staff ordered that Jewish workers who committed certain “breaches <strong>of</strong> work and discipline” (lack <strong>of</strong> diligence, failure to notify changes <strong>of</strong> address, sexual relations with ethnic Romanian women) were to be deported to Transnistria along with <strong>the</strong>ir families. Those Jews in labor detachments <strong>of</strong>ten met with severe punishment, such as whipping and clubbing. In <strong>the</strong> end, <strong>the</strong> essence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> “revision” was that <strong>the</strong> labor camp system was considered to be damaging to <strong>the</strong> economy. So, beginning in 1942, labor detachments became <strong>the</strong> preferred system. However, this reorganization <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jewish compulsory labor system was also an abysmal failure, even according to a report <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Chief <strong>of</strong> Staff issued in November 1943, which concluded that <strong>the</strong> Romanian economy could not do without <strong>the</strong> skills <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jewish population. This episode in <strong>the</strong> life <strong>of</strong> Romanian Jewry left deep social scars. Many careers were ruined, <strong>the</strong> education <strong>of</strong> Jewish youth was interrupted, old Jewish authority structures and practices broke down, and <strong>the</strong> corruption <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> exemption system undermined upright social mores. Many became very sick or crippled and dozens, maybe hundreds, perished. The Eviction <strong>of</strong> Jews from Small Towns and Villages during <strong>the</strong> Antonescu Regime Ion Antonescu continued what had begun under <strong>the</strong> National Legionary state: <strong>the</strong> evacuation <strong>of</strong> Jews
from villages and small towns. On June 18, 1941, he ordered <strong>the</strong>se Jews to be moved to county (judet) capitals and borroughs. Some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se capitals had only a meager Jewish presence, so <strong>the</strong> rural Jews were crowded into warehouses, abandoned buildings, synagogues, Jewish community buildings, and o<strong>the</strong>r precarious forms <strong>of</strong> accommodation. The local Jewish communities could not cope with <strong>the</strong> needs <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> evacuated rural Jews, whose household belongings had been confiscated upon deportation. Male Jews, eighteen to sixty years-old and living in <strong>the</strong> area between Rivers Siret and Prut, were ordered to be interned in <strong>the</strong> Targu Jiu camp in sou<strong>the</strong>rn Romania. The Jews evacuated from Dorohoi and sou<strong>the</strong>rn Bukovina as well as <strong>the</strong> survivors <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Iasi death train were interned in o<strong>the</strong>r sou<strong>the</strong>rn Romanian camps in <strong>the</strong> counties <strong>of</strong> Romanati, Dolj, Vlasca, and Călăraşi-Ialomita. Many Jews were declared hostages by order <strong>of</strong> Antonescu himself. Antonescu ordered his Chief <strong>of</strong> Staff to set up several temporary labor camps in sou<strong>the</strong>rn Romania. As one intelligence <strong>of</strong>ficer later stated, this was part <strong>of</strong> a larger strategy to remove Moldavian Jews through “deportation and extermination.” The property <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> evacuated Jews was nationalized, and some <strong>of</strong> it was simply looted by locals. During <strong>the</strong> evacuation, villagers <strong>of</strong>ten openly expressed <strong>the</strong>ir joy at <strong>the</strong> Jews’ departure, insulted, humiliated, or attacked <strong>the</strong>m. On several occasions <strong>the</strong> deportation trains stopped in <strong>the</strong> same train stations as military trains on <strong>the</strong> way to <strong>the</strong> front, and many soldiers used <strong>the</strong> opportunity to show <strong>the</strong>ir approval <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> deportation or to use violence against <strong>the</strong> Jews. By July 31, 1941, <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> evacuees had reached 40,000 people. Four hundred forty-one villages and small towns were thus cleansed. Jews were forced to wear a distinctive patch beginning in July/August, though Antonescu repealed <strong>the</strong> measure on September 9, 1941, after Filderman’s protests. The revocation, however, did not apply to Jews from Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transnistria, for whom a special degree was issued. The obligation to wear <strong>the</strong> distinctive badge revealed Romanians’ antisemitism, as numerous ordinary people displayed excessive zeal in making sure <strong>the</strong>ir Jewish compatriots wore <strong>the</strong>ir patches, and wore <strong>the</strong>m properly. As <strong>the</strong> deportations had a grave impact on <strong>the</strong> economic life <strong>of</strong> many villages and towns, Antonescu grew concerned by September 1941 and took steps to divide Jews into two categories: “useful” and “useless” to <strong>the</strong> economy. This represented his first step away from complete Romanianization: “There are certain Jews who we cannot replace….We forced between 50,000 and 60,000 Jews out <strong>of</strong> villages and small towns, and we moved <strong>the</strong>m into cities where <strong>the</strong>y are now a burden to <strong>the</strong> Jewish communities <strong>the</strong>re, as <strong>the</strong>y have to feed <strong>the</strong>m.” The Iasi Pogrom: The First Stage <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Physical Destruction <strong>of</strong> Romanian Jewry The evacuation <strong>of</strong> Jews from Iasi—where 45,000 Jews were living on June 29, 1941—was part <strong>of</strong> a plan to eliminate <strong>the</strong> Jewish presence in Bessarabia, Bukovina, and Moldavia. “Cleansing <strong>the</strong> land” meant <strong>the</strong> immediate liquidation <strong>of</strong> all Jews in <strong>the</strong> countryside, <strong>the</strong> incarceration in ghettos <strong>of</strong> Jews found in urban centers, and <strong>the</strong> detention <strong>of</strong> all persons suspected <strong>of</strong> being Communist Party activists. It was <strong>the</strong> Romanian equivalent <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Final</strong> Solution. The pogrom against <strong>the</strong> Jews <strong>of</strong> Iasi was carried out under express orders from Ion Antonescu that <strong>the</strong> city be cleansed <strong>of</strong> all Jews and that any Jew who opened fire on Romanian or German soldiers should be eliminated without mercy. Section Two <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> General Headquarters <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Romanian Army and <strong>the</strong> Special Intelligence Service (SSI) laid <strong>the</strong> groundwork for <strong>the</strong> Iasi pogrom and supplied <strong>the</strong> pretext for punishing <strong>the</strong> city’s Jewish population, while German army units stationed in <strong>the</strong> city assisted <strong>the</strong> Romanian authorities. On June 27, 1941, Ion Antonescu issued <strong>the</strong> formal order to evacuate Jews from <strong>the</strong> city via telephone directly to Col. Constantin Lupu, commander <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Iasi garrison. Lupu was instructed to take steps to “cleanse Iasi <strong>of</strong> its Jewish population.” On <strong>the</strong> night <strong>of</strong> June 28/29, as army, police and gendarmerie units were launching <strong>the</strong> arrests and executions, Antonescu telephoned again to reiterate <strong>the</strong> evacuation order. Lupu made careful note <strong>of</strong> his mission:
Page 1 and 2:
Final Repo
Page 3 and 4:
Germany’s war against the
Page 5 and 6:
which includes reputed experts led
Page 7 and 8:
BACKGROUND AND PRECURSORS TO THE HO
Page 9 and 10:
against which antisemites in <stron
Page 11 and 12:
declaring in the p
Page 13 and 14:
them. Thus, he con
Page 15 and 16:
We must organize ourselves for a wa
Page 17 and 18:
ureaucracy of wart
Page 19 and 20:
this direction by Nicolae C. Paules
Page 21 and 22:
promising leader of</strong
Page 23 and 24:
organized a tariff and tax strike.
Page 25 and 26:
Legion of
Page 27 and 28:
less so in Romanian society as a wh
Page 29 and 30:
This ambiguous, self-contradictory
Page 31 and 32:
The Gigurtu government began to con
Page 33 and 34:
The Case of Român
Page 35 and 36:
Cuza’s argument that it is possib
Page 37 and 38: Românesc,” Sociologie Româneasc
Page 39 and 40: ole in the early 1
Page 41 and 42: European states, notably Romania an
Page 43 and 44: Germany's immediate interests at <s
Page 45 and 46: eligious communities, the</
Page 47 and 48: counterpart, “when [he] first met
Page 49 and 50: de Istorie şi Arheologie, “A. D.
Page 51 and 52: Romania. Muler to Luthe</st
Page 53 and 54: demands on territorial revisions an
Page 55 and 56: military mission to come to Romania
Page 57 and 58: High Command, informing the
Page 59 and 60: The Jews and the R
Page 61 and 62: Romanian army. Thus, in Ciudei in <
Page 63 and 64: antisemitism in Romanian society an
Page 65 and 66: Ibid., fond Micro-films, roll I.II,
Page 67 and 68: manifestations of
Page 69 and 70: power, as this power colonized West
Page 71 and 72: attraction, many Jews resettled in
Page 73 and 74: to defend itself; hence its support
Page 75 and 76: about the Holocaus
Page 77 and 78: Nichifor Crainic, “Dupa douazeci
Page 79 and 80: Isaia Tolan, “Revizuirea incetate
Page 81 and 82: X. Y. Z., “Rezolvarea problemei e
Page 83 and 84: andom searches and arrests, robberi
Page 85 and 86: Bucharest Prefectura. Almost two th
Page 87: epression was not ordered by Antone
Page 91 and 92: accident; it was contrived by <stro
Page 93 and 94: The second train to leave Iasi for
Page 95 and 96: care of th
Page 97 and 98: "premilitary," were also placed at
Page 99 and 100: according to the o
Page 101 and 102: Tighina Agreement On August 30, Tra
Page 103 and 104: elieved Transnistria would be occup
Page 105 and 106: the 331,000 Ukrain
Page 107 and 108: those inside to take the</s
Page 109 and 110: [longer] move.” After several wee
Page 111 and 112: eappear a few seconds later and sig
Page 113 and 114: operation and that “some
Page 115 and 116: Bukovina and Bessarabia. Einsatzkom
Page 117 and 118: other things, <str
Page 119 and 120: Berezovka district and burn <strong
Page 121 and 122: them in exchange f
Page 123 and 124: transport of 2,000
Page 125 and 126: Bulgarian, Turkish, Italian, or Swi
Page 127 and 128: were at least 122,000 Jews. Bukovin
Page 129 and 130: Wilhelm Hoettl, The Secret Front: T
Page 131 and 132: Ancel, Documents, vol. 2: no. 136,
Page 133 and 134: Carp, Cartea neagra, vol. 3: pp. 30
Page 135 and 136: Gosudartsveni Archiv Odeskoi Oblast
Page 137 and 138: Cable from the Mil
Page 139 and 140:
1-1087, p. 114; list of</st
Page 141 and 142:
Ibid. “Rezolvarea problemei evrei
Page 143 and 144:
child’s birth, would be considere
Page 145 and 146:
Indeed, the system
Page 147 and 148:
Romanianization instead of<
Page 149 and 150:
The Cultural Ghettoization
Page 151 and 152:
The Status of Jewi
Page 153 and 154:
give up any radios able to send and
Page 155 and 156:
Conclusions The anti-Jewish legisla
Page 157 and 158:
L.A., no. 99, p. 344. Trei ani de g
Page 159 and 160:
moral, social, and intellectual nee
Page 161 and 162:
gradually, in reality the</
Page 163 and 164:
except being defined as a Jew. I be
Page 165 and 166:
egulate and authorize, under <stron
Page 167 and 168:
y Lecca: Jews were privileged, and
Page 169 and 170:
through the activi
Page 171 and 172:
oth as a cry of re
Page 173 and 174:
After coming to power, the<
Page 175 and 176:
and then to send <
Page 177 and 178:
their non-evacuate
Page 179 and 180:
villages of <stron
Page 181 and 182:
Return of Roma Sur
Page 183 and 184:
(in many cases, the</strong
Page 185 and 186:
in Romania. History and Contemporar
Page 187 and 188:
THE ROLE OF ION ANTONESCU IN THE PL
Page 189 and 190:
December 16, 1941, meeting
Page 191 and 192:
me from carrying out the</s
Page 193 and 194:
did not do it because…the
Page 195 and 196:
more ironically, this leader’s wa
Page 197 and 198:
THE HOLOCAUST IN NORTHERN TRANSYLVA
Page 199 and 200:
Others 22 968 Magy
Page 201 and 202:
ultimatum but also consented to <st
Page 203 and 204:
military, political, and psychologi
Page 205 and 206:
command over the g
Page 207 and 208:
Huedin. The Jews of</strong
Page 209 and 210:
authorities set up two ghettos in <
Page 211 and 212:
Secuilor counties was carried out i
Page 213 and 214:
the procedure foll
Page 215 and 216:
deportation trains per day. While E
Page 217 and 218:
Deportation Trains from Nor
Page 219 and 220:
Câtcău Kackó Ciuc Csík Ciucea C
Page 221 and 222:
Rona de Sus Felsöróna Rozavica Ro
Page 223 and 224:
Bözödújfalu Bezidu Nou Budfalva
Page 225 and 226:
Nagysajó Şieu (Bistrita-Nasaud Co
Page 227 and 228:
(Indictment of Naz
Page 229 and 230:
Randolph L. Braham, comp. and ed. (
Page 231 and 232:
perceived by a significant part <st
Page 233 and 234:
Romanian government not to adopt <s
Page 235 and 236:
still alive in the
Page 237 and 238:
the Jews who worke
Page 239 and 240:
We have been informed that various
Page 241 and 242:
church bells announce the</
Page 243 and 244:
Mitropolit pleaded with Mihai Anton
Page 245 and 246:
Pozdnyakova, Yefrosiniya Starostina
Page 247 and 248:
Ibid., pp. 224-225. Ibid., pp. 46-4
Page 249 and 250:
the examined cases
Page 251 and 252:
escape with negligible punishment;
Page 253 and 254:
immense scale, enslaved millions <s
Page 255 and 256:
means. The “ethnic Christian stat
Page 257 and 258:
it is evident that the</str
Page 259 and 260:
face să pară evident că victimel
Page 261 and 262:
viaţă, 100 milioane lei amendă
Page 263 and 264:
Articolul 15 al Convenţiei de armi
Page 265 and 266:
members accepted as authoritative s
Page 267 and 268:
camp in January 1945, for several m
Page 269 and 270:
Beginning in the 1
Page 271 and 272:
such access was strictly supervised
Page 273 and 274:
enefit from translation into Englis
Page 275 and 276:
furthermore, he ha
Page 277 and 278:
lucrative Jewish business ever,”
Page 279 and 280:
deaths of thousand
Page 281 and 282:
Treptow who was residing in Romania
Page 283 and 284:
Finally, it must b
Page 285 and 286:
A.) Integral Negationism Although <
Page 287 and 288:
other genocides re
Page 289 and 290:
mankind, such as wars; the<
Page 291 and 292:
age of 44, only on
Page 293 and 294:
After deploring the</strong
Page 295 and 296:
Michael Shafir, “Ex Occidente Obs
Page 297 and 298:
See, for example, Giurescu who make
Page 299 and 300:
Randolph L. Braham, Romanian Nation
Page 301 and 302:
Mediafax, March 18, 2002, Monitorul
Page 303 and 304:
See Ibidem, pp. 3, 54-55. Ibidem, p
Page 305 and 306:
Radu Theodoru, Mareşalul, Editura
Page 307 and 308:
egained from the U
Page 309 and 310:
was a record of an
Page 311 and 312:
secondary school use. Those institu
Page 313:
including erecting statues, mountin
show all

Final Report of the International Commission on the - Minority Rights ...

You also want an ePaper? Increase the reach of your titles

Delete template?

Save as template?