The Judgment of Animals in Classical Greece: Animal Sculpture and ...

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fragment, these standards are exalted by the ruling of Kypris (Friendship), 351 whom early men propitiated (i9la&skonto) not with sacrifices of animals, but, instead, with eu)sebe/essin (“pious”) a)ga&lmasin and graptoi=j (“painted,” “drawn”) zw|&oisi. The reference to Kypris in combination with the terms “propitiated” and “pious” establish the context of the fragment as that of religious practice. Within this context, both a)ga&lmasin and zw|&oisi feature as standard offerings of some kind to Kypris. 0Aga&lmasin is the dative plural form of a1galma, a word, which, in fifth-century literature, is used “for statues in general and individual images of gods,” but holds also the meanings of “ornament,” “delight,” and “picture.” 352 This evidence suggests that the term was directly involved with the arts. In this case, the general meaning of “statues” has been applied to a)ga&lmasin, and also the ever-general one of “images,” which, although fitting, underscores our difficulty in understanding and consequent tendency to generalize Greek terms that stood in and for a broad, yet refined, spectrum of images. 353 That these “statues” are described as pious (eu)sebe/essin) makes it probably safe to and contrariwise, abstaining wholly from things animate”; translation: R. G. Bury, ed., tr., Plato IX. Laws I [London and Cambridge, Mass., 1926; repr. 1952] 493). 351 For the identification of Kypris with Philia, that is, Friendship, in fragments of the so-called Physics of Empedocles (e.g., 62 [73], 70 [75].2, 83 [98].3, and 87 [95]), see Wright, Empedocles 283. 352 Donohue, Xoana 24, n. 59, and 25, n. 61 respectively, for examples of a1galma as “statue” in: a) Pindar, Pyth. 5.40, and Nem. 5.1, and b) Aeschylus, Sept. 258-265; also 25, n. 61, for a1galma as “statue of a god” in Aeschylus, Sept. 258-265, and 26, n. 63 for the same word and meaning in Euripides, Hipp. 116, 1399, and Andr. 115, 246; also 25, n. 61 for a1galma as “ornament” being the most frequent meaning in Aeschylus (without citations); 26, n. 63 for a1galma as a “delight” in Euripides, Suppl. 632, IT 273, and Hel. 262 as a “picture.” For the development of the meaning of a1galma from the sixth to the fifth centuries B.C., see H. Philipp, Tektonon Daidala. Der bildende Künstler und sein Werk in vorplatonischen Schrifttum (Berlin, 1988) 103-108. 353 Statues: W. W. Fortenbaugh et al., eds., trs., Theophrastus of Eresus. Sources for his Life, Writings Thought and Influence II (Leiden and New York, 1993) 417; Images: Wright, Empedocles 282; Clark, Porphyry 63. For a discussion of the “poorly understood [Greek] vocabulary relating to images”, see A. A. Donohue, “The Greek Images of the Gods: Considerations of Terminology and Methodology,” Hephaistos 15 (1997) 34, ns. 11-18, where, along with a1galma, she also mentions a)ndria&j, a)fi/druma, bre/taj, e3doj, ei1dwlon, ei0kw&n, and kolosso&j; similarly, Schnapp, “Are Images Animated,” in Renfrew and Zubrow, eds., The Ancient Mind 41, who notes that “the Greek language does not possess a word for ‘statue.’ Instead of this, the Greeks used a range of very different formulations: bretas, xoanon, agalma, idruma, kolossos, eidolon, eikon.” 224
assume that they referred to images of gods, although the possibility of their being images of animals that were not sacrificed cannot be precluded. At the same time, they can simply mean “delightful things.” Apart from these definitions, the a)ga&lmata of the fragment have been also thought to mean “offerings” and “gifts.” 354 That these a)ga&lmata were presented to Kypris cannot be denied, but their identification with “images,” in particular, pious “statues,” establishes them as works of art of religious significance, and therefore allows a close-up view of their meaning. This view comes from the meaning of a1galma as a “statue, [more precisely], an inanimate image, which makes the living gods present,” which, despite its attestation in a later, but still Classical author (Plato), when applied to the a)ga&lmata of Kypris’s age, illuminates the particular meaning that these statues might have held for Empedocles and his contemporaries. 355 In addition, the fact that Empedocles associates these pious statues with an early age like that of Kypris is suggestive of the centrality of the visual arts in religious practice as a prominent feature of the Greek conception of the past. 356 That the Egyptians—a race much older than the Greek in the Greek imagination—were credited with inventing this 354 Offerings: Guthrie, In the Beginning 73; gifts: W. E. Leonard, tr., The Fragments of Empedocles (Chicago, 1908) 59. There is a strong suspicion that these translations may be influenced, not by the featuring of a)ga&lmata as offerings to Kypris in the context of the fragment, but by the fact that, the early meaning of a1galma (e.g., in Homer and Hesiod) was that of a gift to a human being as well as to a god. It is only in the first half of the sixth century, that the meaning of the term appears to be confined to that of an object dedicated to the gods. For these definitions, see Philipp, Tektonon Daidala 103-104; also A. E. Raubitschek, rev. of “H. Bloesh, Agalma, Kleinod, Weihgeschenk, Götterbild, ein Beitrag zur frühgriechischen Kultur und Religionsgeschichte (Bern, 1943),” in AJA 50 (1946) 197. 355 Plato (Laws 931a): “some of the gods whom we honor we see clearly, but of other we set up statues [a)ga&lmata] as images [ei0ko&naj], and we believe that when we worship these, lifeless though they be, the living gods beyond feel great good-will towards us and gratitude”; translation: R. G. Bury, ed., tr., Plato IX. Laws II (London and Cambridge, Mass., 1926; repr. 1952) 449. For the value of this passage in expressing the meaning of a1galma as a statue, that is, an inanimate image that makes the living gods present, see Schnapp, “Are Images Animated,” in Renfrew and Zubrow, eds., The Ancient Mind 43. 356 Such a connection between the past and art contrasts with the Greek idea of the past as an age before art. For a discussion of the idea of an age before art, its featuring in the Greek conception of the past, and also in antiquarian writings like those of Callimachus, Plutarch, and Pausanias on the history of art, see Donohue, Xoana 196-197, and more generally, 177-205. This is evidence for the existence of several Greek conceptions of the past that cannot be reconciled. 225
Page 1 and 2:
The Judgment of Animals in Classica
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the meaning of the term zw|~on—us
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Table of Contents Acknowledgments .
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Section 2 a. Dogs Stealing and Gobb
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Acknowledgements First and foremost
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Introduction It is generally though
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of their art while maintaining awar
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connection between animals and life
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Chapter three, “The Classical Gre
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turn, shaped by contemporary ideas
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with the animal kingdom. 5 Regardin
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The examples just cited show that r
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studying freestanding statues of li
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particular, has dominated twentieth
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Regarding classical antiquity, the
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their grip, for a “tooth” on ea
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discussion of the sculpture to whic
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them. Consequently the Athenians wi
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subjects on the basis of which arti
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of the later (Hellenistic) developm
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The theory that naturalism played t
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we have seen or sensed in the past,
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valued criterion of judging works o
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more accurate observation and rende
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judged by the ancient Greeks? As su
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is still central to his argument, b
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wars, the symmetry of their tense p
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Archaic and Classical phases, follo
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the acquired skill of craftsmanship
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prevalence of naturalism in his vie
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The statement shows clearly that Bo
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of Kollytos in the Athenian Keramei
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Having expressed this idea, he pres
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5. Not Naturalism and Realism. The
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animals, but rather highlights thei
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instead of a message highlights the
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quality of Cleiton’s statues, or,
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valuable guide to the ancient inter
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importance of these notions in defi
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made of bronze, if Myron had worked
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first century A.D., the statue pres
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lifelikeness of the statue, in quit
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Wilt thou not lead me into the hous
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a real animal might act in the real
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The fourth epigram, an anonymous, a
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In the fourth epigram, also an anon
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mistaken a bronze cow for a real on
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The statue proclaims its lifelikene
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and the man leading it, and the wom
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orrowed voice, the boundary between
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oundary between lifeless art and re
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had made a success of that as well,
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eference to the error of the Pliny
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form of equine connoisseurship resp
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Chapter 2: Representations of Anima
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markers of both sexes.” 138 He ca
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little in the way of explanation. I
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een noted, a confluence of three di
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The Possibility of Influence from B
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“in the later fifth and fourth ce
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speaking of the style of Classical
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It is perhaps Xenophon’s use of t
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William Brown suggests that this pa
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the expense of realism, or to a com
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B.C. 178 Although not described in
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inconsistent style. That of Vermeul
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and degrees in which this combinati
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2. Two Cases Studies: The Lion and
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just as odd a man and the beast doe
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The Motif of the Lion Holding the H
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ehavior, the description of Hector
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Despite its unclear authorship and
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animals and have the softest hair;
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with it. He provides this descripti
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Further, Willemsen’s observation
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The body of the Kerameikos hound ap
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that the author of the Physiognomic
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Those [animals] who have thin lips
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knowledge of the dog mating with ot
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serve their arrangement in Classica
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Chapter 3: The Classical Greek Cont
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SECTION 1 a. Dogs Living in the Hou
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eferring first to the human family
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Aristotle’s Politics, so pervasiv
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that of a dog: his location on the
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In contrast to this suggestion, Joh
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Aeschylus’s intention to liken th
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thing is possible then,” said I,
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If anyone’s out of bread but has
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c. Molossian Dogs as Guardians of t
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incident, Aegeas was a ferocious Mo
Page 183 and 184: Aristotle indicates that Molossian
Page 185 and 186: untrustworthy animal. So pervasive
Page 187 and 188: the dog’s stealing of food within
Page 189 and 190: mythological dogs, such as those of
Page 191 and 192: Cleon of embezzling money while cam
Page 193 and 194: Although not provoked by the act of
Page 195 and 196: Apart from labeling dogs as indiscr
Page 197 and 198: 190 B.C.), and cited in Athenaeus
Page 199 and 200: Detienne and Vernant that wisdom an
Page 201 and 202: egarding mh~tij, the canine behavio
Page 203 and 204: e. The Savage Nature of Dogs Histor
Page 205 and 206: The textual evidence discussed in t
Page 207 and 208: efers to some countries as consumer
Page 209 and 210: living together with humans brings
Page 211 and 212: example, states that “these lines
Page 213 and 214: and thus poor men. 317 On the basis
Page 215 and 216: with dog flesh. 322 Further, on the
Page 217 and 218: flesh as medicinal food notwithstan
Page 219 and 220: ordinary food, but is not connected
Page 221 and 222: 2. Disease of the Back Similar to t
Page 223 and 224: ensured only if one is willing to
Page 225 and 226: The literary evidence contained in
Page 227 and 228: practice of eating dog meat indicat
Page 229 and 230: product of an artistic process,”
Page 231 and 232: Georgopapadakos. 344 On the basis o
Page 233: that is Friendship. They made her k
Page 237 and 238: the meaning of zw|~on in the fifth
Page 239 and 240: tendency not to distinguish between
Page 241 and 242: zw|~a. Thus, they translate the fir
Page 243 and 244: econstructed as five consecutive fr
Page 245 and 246: To conclude the discussing of Herod
Page 247 and 248: Turning to zw|~a, one sees that Her
Page 249 and 250: With regard to the modern definitio
Page 251 and 252: Regarding modern translations of zw
Page 253 and 254: length of the causeway was 5 sta&di
Page 255 and 256: The fragment was initially assigned
Page 257 and 258: estates, whereas the middle part wo
Page 259 and 260: of sand and limestone chips. The po
Page 261 and 262: limestone mantle. 441 Its poor cond
Page 263 and 264: Undoubtedly, these zw|~a did show s
Page 265 and 266: statement accords well with the pro
Page 267 and 268: pyramid in Egypt. Tu&pon is the acc
Page 269 and 270: Herodotus provides further insight
Page 271 and 272: evidence should be also added an Ar
Page 273 and 274: g. The Zw|~a of Mandrocles’ Paint
Page 275 and 276: The passage is instructive for the
Page 277 and 278: the representations of enthroned Da
Page 279 and 280: Herodotus gives no details about th
Page 281 and 282: Grene, who says “little figures.
Page 283 and 284: theory has dominated scholarship. 5
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iders on horses that gallop to the
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inscription is in the form of a hea
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The existing blocks that form the b
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suggests a distinctive technique of
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The same type of information is rec
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addition, the inscriptions provide
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stone and zw~ia suggests a standard
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description for something, and ther
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Erechtheion, and also fragments of
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uilding, and also marked a technica
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Socrates likens the use of colors b
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on a surface produced by painting,
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outstanding allotment of happiness
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indicates that it was a term of gen
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government of the state. Four perso
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form a group of discussants on the
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prominently in Plato’s discussion
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“animals,” and Pangle, as “li
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general. Trevor Saunders attempts t
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And I do not think it is right that
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contrasted to the representations o
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Aristotle likens the formation of t
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paintings—also connected with zw&
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The third occurrence of the term in
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kaq' au(to_ ei]nai…qew&rhma), and
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temple.” Now the statue [a1galma]
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of real bodies. When this meaning i
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Conclusions Animals are fundamental
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animals—as essential elements of
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scholarly interpretations of the pr
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The literary, epigraphical, and scu
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APPENDIX: TESTIMONIA Note to the re
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Eu)po&lidi tw|~ th~j kwmw|di/aj poi
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with no seal broken in the length o
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ku&nej de\ e0cai/fnhj oi0kouroi\ pe
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17 Anonymous, Anthologia Palatina 9
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26 Anonymous, Anthologia Palatina 9
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33 Antipater of Sidon, Anthologia P
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watches, and when you happen to gap
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ou)de\n ga_r e1rgon h}n a1r' a)qliw
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835 ba&ll' e0j ko&rakaj. toioutoni\
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Prw~ton me\n ou}n to_ a1nw ku&toj a
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xai/rousin a)lla_ th|~ brw&sei, th_
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In Phasis there is a breed of small
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Text and translation: D. M. Balme,
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ou)de\n de\ oi[on eu)nh_ malqakh_ k
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e1ti de\ kai\ eu)w&desi ta_j xei=ra
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μέν[a έν f]ρo[uρ ί k ]do[ς
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λίθος πρὸς ℎο̑ι τ
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the horse and the man appearing beh
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As for dogs, what can I say? In som
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Tou&twn te w}n ei3neken oi9 Lakedai
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Herodotus 2.148 oi9 ga_r e0pestew~t
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asile/a te Darei=on e0n proedri/h|
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110 Hippocrates, De affectionibus i
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Hippocrates, De morbis ii 44.16-44.
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Rub well silphium equal to one grai
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that on the peaks of a mountain fig
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Text and translation: W. R. Paton,
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a)festhko&j. e0ntau~qa e9kate/ra mo
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Text and translation: W. R. Paton,
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The accounts given by all us must b
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a1frona gegone/nai nomoqe/thn, w3st
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The eyes, the most beautiful featur
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153 Pliny 34.72 A.D. I Text and tra
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Another habit of his was when he ha
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for the earth-goddess Hecate, it ha
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dia_ pollw~n de\ o( Qeo&frastoj e0k
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The characteristics of the brave ma
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oi[j ta_ xei/lh lepta_ kai\ e0p' a1
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185 Sophocles, Antigone 198-206 V B
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the taste will make them less incli
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“Cleiton, that your statues of ru
Page 431 and 432:
B. Arntsen, Dog On The Roof…No La
Page 433 and 434:
_____, Early Greek Vase Painting. 1
Page 435 and 436:
A. Campana, “The Origin of the Wo
Page 437 and 438:
_____, “The Greek Images of the G
Page 439 and 440:
E. Fudge, “A Left-Handed Blow: Wr
Page 441 and 442:
M. Haase, Eine Stätte für die Ewi
Page 443 and 444:
W. W. How and J. Wells, A Commentar
Page 445 and 446:
R. G. Kent, Old Persian. Grammar. T
Page 447 and 448:
A. Linzey and T. Regan, eds., Anima
Page 449 and 450:
H. W. Miller, “Aristophanes and M
Page 451 and 452:
_____, “Cario and the New World o
Page 453 and 454:
S. B. Pomeroy, Xenophon. Oeconomicu
Page 455 and 456:
C. Rolley, La tombe princière de V
Page 457 and 458:
W. Smith, ed., Dictionary of Greek
Page 459 and 460:
C. Thorne, “Feeding Behavior of D
Page 461 and 462:
S. Simpson, eds., Pictorial Narrati
Page 463 and 464:
Young, Archaic Marble Sculpture fro
Page 465 and 466:
Fig. 1 Classical statue of a dog fr
Page 467 and 468:
Fig. 4 Classical Inscription from a
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Fig. 7 Classical statue of a lion f
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Fig. 10 The lion of Amphipolis (fou
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Fig. 13 Late Geometric II stand fro
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Fig. 16 Late Archaic Boeotian terra
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Fig. 21 Reconstruction of part of a
Page 479 and 480:
Fig. 24 Capstone of the pyramid of
Page 481 and 482:
Fig. 26 Archaic bronze krater from
Page 483:
Fig. 29 Figure of a horrified femal
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