The Judgment of Animals in Classical Greece: Animal Sculpture and ...

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Pollitt’s work. As noted earlier, Pollitt does not subscribe to the scholarly view of naturalism as the aim of Greek art. The rejection of this view is also found in his study of 1974, The Ancient View of Greek Art, where he speaks of naturalism as one of the two critical concepts (the other one being idealism) that have shaped our judgment of Greek art since the Renaissance. 43 His statement implies that the importance placed upon Greek naturalism as a standard of qualitative criticism derives from modern rather than ancient reality. The same view is also exemplified by his definition of naturalism as a concept: “The idea that the great achievement of Greek art was to represent nature as it really is (or at least to simulate our optical experience of it), rather than to represent it by schematic formulas, is probably a direct outgrowth of the rise of scientific archaeology in the last one hundred years.” 44 Pollitt’s link between the definition of naturalism and scientific archaeology is instructive, for it allows a comment on how problematic the interpretative framework of naturalism is when identified with accurate reproduction of natural forms (“nature as it really is” or appears) as an apparently objective criterion of scientific (empirical) observation. 45 It has been remarked, however, that even scientific papers are not devoid of unbiased observation because “[w]hat we see or otherwise sense is a function of what 42 This treatment is not unique to the scholarship on ancient Greek art. For a discussion of the vagueness of the term “naturalism,” how it affects scholarship on art in general, and its perceived affiliation with “realism” see F. Novotny, “Naturalism in Art,” in P. P. Wiener, ed., Dictionary of the History of Ideas III (New York, 1973) 339-340. 43 J. J. Pollitt, The Ancient View of Greek Art: Criticism, History, and Terminology (New Haven and London, 1974) 3. 44 Pollitt, Ancient View 4-5. 45 For a recent discussion of the empirical process as a convention of apparently direct and neutral description of material in archaeological scholarship and its consequences, see Donohue, The Problem of Description 17-18. 32
we have seen or sensed in the past,” 46 a realization which, when applied to art history, brings immediately to mind Heinrich Wölfflin’s famous dictum that because “men have always seen what they wished to see,” therefore, “[v]ision itself has its history.” 47 The implication of such remarks is that objective vision does not exist, and therefore, when we equate the concept of naturalism with accurate reproduction of our optical experience of nature, it does not necessarily mean that we have decoded the ancient Greek understanding of either the concept or the optical experience it entailed. Pollitt’s attitude of downplaying Greek naturalism is further seen in his assertion that the concept probably had some validity as a basis for judging Greek art in antiquity, since it was present in the critical terminology of the arts, but, at certain times, it was surpassed by other concepts (e.g., φαντασία) in importance. 48 Pollitt does not, at this point in his introductory essay, either identify these concepts, or give the ancient Greek term for naturalism. He does, however, consider “realism,” which he equates with the ancient concept of mimesis, to be one of the three popular criteria (the other two being miraculous qualities and costliness) for judging art in antiquity. 49 It is difficult to discern from this treatment how exactly the two concepts are related in his mind. Regarding realism, he states that it “is simply a popular, unintellectual version of the mimesis idea in Classical philosophy. Its standard of judgment is the feeling that the best works of art are those which simulate the external world with such uncanny 46 Donohue, The Problem of Description 18 citing A. B. Medewar, “Is the Scientific Paper a Fraud?” The Listener 70, no. 1798 (September 12, 1963) 377. 47 H. Wölfflin, tr. M. D. Hottinger, Principles of Art History. The Problem of the Development of Style in Later Art (1932; repr. New York, 1950) viii and 11. 48 Pollitt, Ancient View 6. 49 Pollitt, Ancient View 63. 33
Page 1 and 2: The Judgment of Animals in Classica
Page 3 and 4: the meaning of the term zw|~on—us
Page 5 and 6: Table of Contents Acknowledgments .
Page 7 and 8: Section 2 a. Dogs Stealing and Gobb
Page 9 and 10: Acknowledgements First and foremost
Page 11 and 12: Introduction It is generally though
Page 13 and 14: of their art while maintaining awar
Page 15 and 16: connection between animals and life
Page 17 and 18: Chapter three, “The Classical Gre
Page 19 and 20: turn, shaped by contemporary ideas
Page 21 and 22: with the animal kingdom. 5 Regardin
Page 23 and 24: The examples just cited show that r
Page 25 and 26: studying freestanding statues of li
Page 27 and 28: particular, has dominated twentieth
Page 29 and 30: Regarding classical antiquity, the
Page 31 and 32: their grip, for a “tooth” on ea
Page 33 and 34: discussion of the sculpture to whic
Page 35 and 36: them. Consequently the Athenians wi
Page 37 and 38: subjects on the basis of which arti
Page 39 and 40: of the later (Hellenistic) developm
Page 41: The theory that naturalism played t
Page 45 and 46: valued criterion of judging works o
Page 47 and 48: more accurate observation and rende
Page 49 and 50: judged by the ancient Greeks? As su
Page 51 and 52: is still central to his argument, b
Page 53 and 54: wars, the symmetry of their tense p
Page 55 and 56: Archaic and Classical phases, follo
Page 57 and 58: the acquired skill of craftsmanship
Page 59 and 60: prevalence of naturalism in his vie
Page 61 and 62: The statement shows clearly that Bo
Page 63 and 64: of Kollytos in the Athenian Keramei
Page 65 and 66: Having expressed this idea, he pres
Page 67 and 68: 5. Not Naturalism and Realism. The
Page 69 and 70: animals, but rather highlights thei
Page 71 and 72: instead of a message highlights the
Page 73 and 74: quality of Cleiton’s statues, or,
Page 75 and 76: valuable guide to the ancient inter
Page 77 and 78: importance of these notions in defi
Page 79 and 80: made of bronze, if Myron had worked
Page 81 and 82: first century A.D., the statue pres
Page 83 and 84: lifelikeness of the statue, in quit
Page 85 and 86: Wilt thou not lead me into the hous
Page 87 and 88: a real animal might act in the real
Page 89 and 90: The fourth epigram, an anonymous, a
Page 91 and 92: In the fourth epigram, also an anon
Page 93 and 94:
mistaken a bronze cow for a real on
Page 95 and 96:
The statue proclaims its lifelikene
Page 97 and 98:
and the man leading it, and the wom
Page 99 and 100:
orrowed voice, the boundary between
Page 101 and 102:
oundary between lifeless art and re
Page 103 and 104:
had made a success of that as well,
Page 105 and 106:
eference to the error of the Pliny
Page 107 and 108:
form of equine connoisseurship resp
Page 109 and 110:
Chapter 2: Representations of Anima
Page 111 and 112:
markers of both sexes.” 138 He ca
Page 113 and 114:
little in the way of explanation. I
Page 115 and 116:
een noted, a confluence of three di
Page 117 and 118:
The Possibility of Influence from B
Page 119 and 120:
“in the later fifth and fourth ce
Page 121 and 122:
speaking of the style of Classical
Page 123 and 124:
It is perhaps Xenophon’s use of t
Page 125 and 126:
William Brown suggests that this pa
Page 127 and 128:
the expense of realism, or to a com
Page 129 and 130:
B.C. 178 Although not described in
Page 131 and 132:
inconsistent style. That of Vermeul
Page 133 and 134:
and degrees in which this combinati
Page 135 and 136:
2. Two Cases Studies: The Lion and
Page 137 and 138:
just as odd a man and the beast doe
Page 139 and 140:
The Motif of the Lion Holding the H
Page 141 and 142:
ehavior, the description of Hector
Page 143 and 144:
Despite its unclear authorship and
Page 145 and 146:
animals and have the softest hair;
Page 147 and 148:
with it. He provides this descripti
Page 149 and 150:
Further, Willemsen’s observation
Page 151 and 152:
The body of the Kerameikos hound ap
Page 153 and 154:
that the author of the Physiognomic
Page 155 and 156:
Those [animals] who have thin lips
Page 157 and 158:
knowledge of the dog mating with ot
Page 159 and 160:
serve their arrangement in Classica
Page 161 and 162:
Chapter 3: The Classical Greek Cont
Page 163 and 164:
SECTION 1 a. Dogs Living in the Hou
Page 165 and 166:
eferring first to the human family
Page 167 and 168:
Aristotle’s Politics, so pervasiv
Page 169 and 170:
that of a dog: his location on the
Page 171 and 172:
In contrast to this suggestion, Joh
Page 173 and 174:
Aeschylus’s intention to liken th
Page 175 and 176:
thing is possible then,” said I,
Page 177 and 178:
If anyone’s out of bread but has
Page 179 and 180:
c. Molossian Dogs as Guardians of t
Page 181 and 182:
incident, Aegeas was a ferocious Mo
Page 183 and 184:
Aristotle indicates that Molossian
Page 185 and 186:
untrustworthy animal. So pervasive
Page 187 and 188:
the dog’s stealing of food within
Page 189 and 190:
mythological dogs, such as those of
Page 191 and 192:
Cleon of embezzling money while cam
Page 193 and 194:
Although not provoked by the act of
Page 195 and 196:
Apart from labeling dogs as indiscr
Page 197 and 198:
190 B.C.), and cited in Athenaeus
Page 199 and 200:
Detienne and Vernant that wisdom an
Page 201 and 202:
egarding mh~tij, the canine behavio
Page 203 and 204:
e. The Savage Nature of Dogs Histor
Page 205 and 206:
The textual evidence discussed in t
Page 207 and 208:
efers to some countries as consumer
Page 209 and 210:
living together with humans brings
Page 211 and 212:
example, states that “these lines
Page 213 and 214:
and thus poor men. 317 On the basis
Page 215 and 216:
with dog flesh. 322 Further, on the
Page 217 and 218:
flesh as medicinal food notwithstan
Page 219 and 220:
ordinary food, but is not connected
Page 221 and 222:
2. Disease of the Back Similar to t
Page 223 and 224:
ensured only if one is willing to
Page 225 and 226:
The literary evidence contained in
Page 227 and 228:
practice of eating dog meat indicat
Page 229 and 230:
product of an artistic process,”
Page 231 and 232:
Georgopapadakos. 344 On the basis o
Page 233 and 234:
that is Friendship. They made her k
Page 235 and 236:
assume that they referred to images
Page 237 and 238:
the meaning of zw|~on in the fifth
Page 239 and 240:
tendency not to distinguish between
Page 241 and 242:
zw|~a. Thus, they translate the fir
Page 243 and 244:
econstructed as five consecutive fr
Page 245 and 246:
To conclude the discussing of Herod
Page 247 and 248:
Turning to zw|~a, one sees that Her
Page 249 and 250:
With regard to the modern definitio
Page 251 and 252:
Regarding modern translations of zw
Page 253 and 254:
length of the causeway was 5 sta&di
Page 255 and 256:
The fragment was initially assigned
Page 257 and 258:
estates, whereas the middle part wo
Page 259 and 260:
of sand and limestone chips. The po
Page 261 and 262:
limestone mantle. 441 Its poor cond
Page 263 and 264:
Undoubtedly, these zw|~a did show s
Page 265 and 266:
statement accords well with the pro
Page 267 and 268:
pyramid in Egypt. Tu&pon is the acc
Page 269 and 270:
Herodotus provides further insight
Page 271 and 272:
evidence should be also added an Ar
Page 273 and 274:
g. The Zw|~a of Mandrocles’ Paint
Page 275 and 276:
The passage is instructive for the
Page 277 and 278:
the representations of enthroned Da
Page 279 and 280:
Herodotus gives no details about th
Page 281 and 282:
Grene, who says “little figures.
Page 283 and 284:
theory has dominated scholarship. 5
Page 285 and 286:
iders on horses that gallop to the
Page 287 and 288:
inscription is in the form of a hea
Page 289 and 290:
The existing blocks that form the b
Page 291 and 292:
suggests a distinctive technique of
Page 293 and 294:
The same type of information is rec
Page 295 and 296:
addition, the inscriptions provide
Page 297 and 298:
stone and zw~ia suggests a standard
Page 299 and 300:
description for something, and ther
Page 301 and 302:
Erechtheion, and also fragments of
Page 303 and 304:
uilding, and also marked a technica
Page 305 and 306:
Socrates likens the use of colors b
Page 307 and 308:
on a surface produced by painting,
Page 309 and 310:
outstanding allotment of happiness
Page 311 and 312:
indicates that it was a term of gen
Page 313 and 314:
government of the state. Four perso
Page 315 and 316:
form a group of discussants on the
Page 317 and 318:
prominently in Plato’s discussion
Page 319 and 320:
“animals,” and Pangle, as “li
Page 321 and 322:
general. Trevor Saunders attempts t
Page 323 and 324:
And I do not think it is right that
Page 325 and 326:
contrasted to the representations o
Page 327 and 328:
Aristotle likens the formation of t
Page 329 and 330:
paintings—also connected with zw&
Page 331 and 332:
The third occurrence of the term in
Page 333 and 334:
kaq' au(to_ ei]nai…qew&rhma), and
Page 335 and 336:
temple.” Now the statue [a1galma]
Page 337 and 338:
of real bodies. When this meaning i
Page 339 and 340:
Conclusions Animals are fundamental
Page 341 and 342:
animals—as essential elements of
Page 343 and 344:
scholarly interpretations of the pr
Page 345 and 346:
The literary, epigraphical, and scu
Page 347 and 348:
APPENDIX: TESTIMONIA Note to the re
Page 349 and 350:
Eu)po&lidi tw|~ th~j kwmw|di/aj poi
Page 351 and 352:
with no seal broken in the length o
Page 353 and 354:
ku&nej de\ e0cai/fnhj oi0kouroi\ pe
Page 355 and 356:
17 Anonymous, Anthologia Palatina 9
Page 357 and 358:
26 Anonymous, Anthologia Palatina 9
Page 359 and 360:
33 Antipater of Sidon, Anthologia P
Page 361 and 362:
watches, and when you happen to gap
Page 363 and 364:
ou)de\n ga_r e1rgon h}n a1r' a)qliw
Page 365 and 366:
835 ba&ll' e0j ko&rakaj. toioutoni\
Page 367 and 368:
Prw~ton me\n ou}n to_ a1nw ku&toj a
Page 369 and 370:
xai/rousin a)lla_ th|~ brw&sei, th_
Page 371 and 372:
In Phasis there is a breed of small
Page 373 and 374:
Text and translation: D. M. Balme,
Page 375 and 376:
ou)de\n de\ oi[on eu)nh_ malqakh_ k
Page 377 and 378:
e1ti de\ kai\ eu)w&desi ta_j xei=ra
Page 379 and 380:
μέν[a έν f]ρo[uρ ί k ]do[ς
Page 381 and 382:
λίθος πρὸς ℎο̑ι τ
Page 383 and 384:
the horse and the man appearing beh
Page 385 and 386:
As for dogs, what can I say? In som
Page 387 and 388:
Tou&twn te w}n ei3neken oi9 Lakedai
Page 389 and 390:
Herodotus 2.148 oi9 ga_r e0pestew~t
Page 391 and 392:
asile/a te Darei=on e0n proedri/h|
Page 393 and 394:
110 Hippocrates, De affectionibus i
Page 395 and 396:
Hippocrates, De morbis ii 44.16-44.
Page 397 and 398:
Rub well silphium equal to one grai
Page 399 and 400:
that on the peaks of a mountain fig
Page 401 and 402:
Text and translation: W. R. Paton,
Page 403 and 404:
a)festhko&j. e0ntau~qa e9kate/ra mo
Page 405 and 406:
Text and translation: W. R. Paton,
Page 407 and 408:
The accounts given by all us must b
Page 409 and 410:
a1frona gegone/nai nomoqe/thn, w3st
Page 411 and 412:
The eyes, the most beautiful featur
Page 413 and 414:
153 Pliny 34.72 A.D. I Text and tra
Page 415 and 416:
Another habit of his was when he ha
Page 417 and 418:
for the earth-goddess Hecate, it ha
Page 419 and 420:
dia_ pollw~n de\ o( Qeo&frastoj e0k
Page 421 and 422:
The characteristics of the brave ma
Page 423 and 424:
oi[j ta_ xei/lh lepta_ kai\ e0p' a1
Page 425 and 426:
185 Sophocles, Antigone 198-206 V B
Page 427 and 428:
the taste will make them less incli
Page 429 and 430:
“Cleiton, that your statues of ru
Page 431 and 432:
B. Arntsen, Dog On The Roof…No La
Page 433 and 434:
_____, Early Greek Vase Painting. 1
Page 435 and 436:
A. Campana, “The Origin of the Wo
Page 437 and 438:
_____, “The Greek Images of the G
Page 439 and 440:
E. Fudge, “A Left-Handed Blow: Wr
Page 441 and 442:
M. Haase, Eine Stätte für die Ewi
Page 443 and 444:
W. W. How and J. Wells, A Commentar
Page 445 and 446:
R. G. Kent, Old Persian. Grammar. T
Page 447 and 448:
A. Linzey and T. Regan, eds., Anima
Page 449 and 450:
H. W. Miller, “Aristophanes and M
Page 451 and 452:
_____, “Cario and the New World o
Page 453 and 454:
S. B. Pomeroy, Xenophon. Oeconomicu
Page 455 and 456:
C. Rolley, La tombe princière de V
Page 457 and 458:
W. Smith, ed., Dictionary of Greek
Page 459 and 460:
C. Thorne, “Feeding Behavior of D
Page 461 and 462:
S. Simpson, eds., Pictorial Narrati
Page 463 and 464:
Young, Archaic Marble Sculpture fro
Page 465 and 466:
Fig. 1 Classical statue of a dog fr
Page 467 and 468:
Fig. 4 Classical Inscription from a
Page 469 and 470:
Fig. 7 Classical statue of a lion f
Page 471 and 472:
Fig. 10 The lion of Amphipolis (fou
Page 473 and 474:
Fig. 13 Late Geometric II stand fro
Page 475 and 476:
Fig. 16 Late Archaic Boeotian terra
Page 477 and 478:
Fig. 21 Reconstruction of part of a
Page 479 and 480:
Fig. 24 Capstone of the pyramid of
Page 481 and 482:
Fig. 26 Archaic bronze krater from
Page 483:
Fig. 29 Figure of a horrified femal
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