A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of - Queen Margaret University

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language and yet others used nonsense or non-words to observe vocabulary learning. A small number of studies have employed the use of vocabulary in the native language of participants that was considered to be unfamiliar to them, as a method for observing learning. Freed, Marshall, and Phillips’ (1998) investigation involved 30 adults learning to match 20 colour photographs of unfamiliar breeds of dogs with their names and evaluated the success of semantic and phonological cueing in an over-learning technique. Downes, Kalla, Davies, Flynn, Ali and Mayes (1997) also employed native language vocabulary in the form of surnames, which were extracted from the phonebook and paired with photographs of people who were unfamiliar to participants. They evaluated the effectiveness of two techniques (separately and combined) in facilitating the learning of matched pairs - the ‘pre-exposure’ technique and the imagery technique (see section 2.8.5.2). The pre-exposure technique involved the presentation of the photograph (face) alone to participants, without giving further information or requiring a response, prior to presenting the associated name. This aimed to provide a representation of the stimuli before introducing further information. The imagery technique involved capitalising on the high imageability of the names, which were chosen specifically for this purpose. Participants were offered a mental mage for each face-name pair in an attempt to assign meaning to the arbitrary labels (in this case surnames), for example, they were told to imagine Mr. Fox as having a bushy tail in place of his nose (Downes et al., 1997). The results indicated that the pre-exposure technique alongside the imagery technique produced significantly greater results than either technique alone for learning and recall. The authors assert that the pre-exposure technique is involved in the encoding and storage/consolidation of material and when combined with the imagery technique produces significant gains in learning performance. 57
As many adults have acquired a wide vocabulary in their native language (L1) since childhood, second language learning (L2) offers the opportunity to evaluate the learning of new vocabulary in adulthood. Van Hell and Mahn’s (1997) investigation compared the success of employing two learning techniques - keyword mnemonics (KM) and rote rehearsal (RR) – by healthy adults. Keyword mnemonics involved an elaborate creation of an association between the L2 and L1 word, for example, if Dutch L2 keyword = paint, L1 word = paard (sounds and looks similar to keyword), L1 translation = horse. A mental image in which the words interact could be visualising a horse carrying a paint pot on its back (van Hell and Mahn, 1997). Rote rehearsal simply involved memorising and repeating the new words silently and then with it’s paired translation. Both KM and RR learners recalled the same number of items with KM learners requiring more time to recall the vocabulary. The authors suggest that KM involves the creation of an interactive image between the target word and their native language translation but query its use with inexperienced second language learners. Lotto and de Groot (1998) also evaluated the ability of healthy adults to learn new vocabulary comparing the presentation of the L2 word with its native language translation, with the presentation of L2 with its pictorial representation alone. The results indicated that participants demonstrated better learning when from the L1/L2 word presentation than with L2 and picture representation alone. They also reported that cognates (i.e. share parts of orthographic and /or phonological form with translation) and high frequency words were easier to learn than non-cognates and low frequency words. A number of investigations have employed nonsense or non-words to evaluate how healthy adults learn new vocabulary. De Groot and Keijzer’s (2000) investigation paired native language words with non-words using a pairedassociation technique. The results indicated that cognate words were easier to learn than non-cognates and also less easily forgotten (as assessed one week 58
Page 1 and 2:
An Investigation into the Ability o
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Abstract Recent studies have establ
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Christine Malcolm (Chief Speech and
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2.6.2.1 Lesion size and site 37 2.6
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3.6.1.2 Number and type of items to
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4.8 Chapter summary 132 Chapter 5 T
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5.9.1.1 Personal attributes 176 5.9
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5.15.1.1 Personal attributes 208 5.
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6.3.3.5 The impact of clock drawing
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Appendices 2.1 Main representative
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5.2 Raw and percentage scores for n
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Figures 2i Cognitive neuropsycholog
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Younger people who are having and s
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Chapter 2 Review of the literature
Page 29 and 30: sentences. As aphasia also affects
Page 31 and 32: continue to experience significant
Page 33 and 34: noted that there were three areas t
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Page 43 and 44: Rehabilitation is not thought to al
Page 45 and 46: everything that we learn and experi
Page 47 and 48: eorganisation in hemiplegic stroke
Page 49 and 50: (Kasten and Sabel, 1995) and replic
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Page 53 and 54: Emission Tomography (PET) scans ana
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Page 57 and 58: Studies have not always found age t
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Page 71 and 72: people with apparently similar char
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Page 83 and 84: healthy individuals as mentioned ab
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Page 99 and 100: 3.2.1.4 Delayed recall Approximatel
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Page 109 and 110: Graph 3.2 Comparison of number of i
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Page 129 and 130: 4.3 TRAINING SESSION PROCEDURE Each
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4.3.2.1 Training of stimuli: phonol
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assessments was administered both i
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to match the name and skill present
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4.4.3 Results of P1’s post-traini
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Table 4.4 Pilot Study One Total raw
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session. This reflected the general
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4.4.5 Summary of pilot study one Pi
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4.5.2 Results of P2’s performance
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P2 recalled 14 (70%) of the new wor
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demonstrate this learning during im
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4.6.3 Methodological issues A numbe
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would be asked not to repeat the wo
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4.8 CHAPTER SUMMARY The three pilot
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Chapter 5 Main Investigation 5.1 IN
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- The medical stability of particip
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The methodology for the training an
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(i.e. C1, P3 and C2) remained the t
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the immediate recall was not the sa
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Table 5.5 Characteristics of error
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scores (Zigmond and Snaith, 1983) a
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expected that younger participants
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5.4.2.3 Severity of aphasia While t
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5.5 PARTICIPANT C1 Participant C1
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SPOKEN WORD PICTURE WRITTEN WORD Au
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written form again without the aid
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vocabulary than younger participant
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was non-fluent with many repetition
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emembering 49% of information origi
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5.7.1.1 Personal attributes C2 was
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GOB pathways). C2’s speech was ch
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assessment tasks (see Table 5.2), w
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C3’s narration of the Cinderella
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errors with six out of the 20 new w
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5.9.1.4 Rehearsal and consolidation
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achieved 100% recognition on the li
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any other fictional stories so he w
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the reading task. C5 matched eight
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some word-finding difficulties with
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pathways), spell words and non-word
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(reading) words she made 15 false p
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and PLC pathways). C8’s speech wa
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C9’s data (see Table 5.26 and Fig
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assessments indicated that she had
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5.15.1.1 Personal attributes C10 wa
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naming. C10 had some difficulties c
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SPOKEN WORD PICTURE WRITTEN WORD Au
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Table 5.31 C11’s detailed perform
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influencing factors (for example, a
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each participant’s relevant data,
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Table 5.32 Hierarchical cluster ana
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for months post-stroke, severity of
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Table 5.33 Correlation co-efficient
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ecency and primacy effect, however,
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drawing skills and the ability to l
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with the creation of new neuronal c
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5.8.2.1). Secondly, the participant
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6.3.1.1 The impact of age on the le
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education that an individual experi
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unethical, even perhaps illegal, to
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assessment and treatment of emotion
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theories on the negative effects of
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(CLQT) was developed as a screening
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6.3.3.2 The impact of memory on the
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(executive scores of moderate, mild
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320). Additionally, the CLQT indica
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6.3.4.1 Pre-training language scree
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abilities of each participant and a
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person with aphasia only ever produ
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6.4.2 Methodology As previous resea
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assessing the learning of new vocab
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provided flexibility not only for s
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presentation. It was proposed that
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participants also lexicalised the n
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module and how it communicates with
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theory of rehabilitation and in rel
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experience in different ways and ch
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upon language rehabilitation, for e
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the investigation of people with po
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Further statistical analyses with a
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extend the examination of the abili
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task), severity of aphasia and amou
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References Alexander, M. P. (1994)
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Candia, V., Schafer, Th., Taub, E.,
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Fillingham, J. K., Sage, K. and Lam
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Howard and Hatfield (1987) Aphasia
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Linebaugh, C. W. (1999) Merging the
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Nation, I. S. P. (1983) Teaching an
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Scheibel, A., Conrad, T., Perdue, S
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Warrington, E. K. and McCarthy (198
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Appendix 3.1 Preliminary study one:
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Appendix 3.2 (continued) Preliminar
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Appendix 3.4a Preliminary study two
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Appendix 3.6 Stimuli used for the m
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Appendix 3.6 (continued) Stimuli us
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Appendix 4.1 Methods of learning ne
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Appendix 4.2 Hospital Anxiety and D
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Appendix 4.2 (Continued) Hospital A
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Appendix 4.4 Non-linguistic learnin
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Appendix 4.5 Language screening ass
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Appendix 4.6 Familiar, trained and
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Appendix 4.8 Examples of written an
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APPENDIX 5.2 Participant consent fo
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Appendix 5.3 (Continued) Narrations
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Appendix 5.3 (Continued) Narrations
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Appendix 5.4 (continued) Hierarchic
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Appendix 5.5 (continued) Group corr
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Appendix 5.5 (continued) Group corr
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Appendix 5.7 Total recall of tasks
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A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of - Queen Margaret University

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