A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of - Queen Margaret University

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people learn more successfully if they are prevented from making and reinforcing their own errors (Fillingham, Hodgson, Sage and Lambon Ralph, 2003) and therefore incorrect memory traces are not laid down. This approach was first used with animal learning studies where pigeons learned red-green visual discrimination using this method (Fillingham et al. 2003). The success of errorless learning was compared to errorful learning (where participants were encouraged to guess the correct answer/ procedure) in a number of studies and in all cases errorless learning was demonstrated to be more successful than errorful learning (Lorenzi and Taussik, 2000; Clare, Wilson, Breen and Hodges, 1999; Evans, Wilson, Schuri, Andrade, Baddeley, Bruna, Canavan, Della Sala, Green, Laaksonen, Baddeley and Wilson, 1994). This approach was used to successfully rehabilitate people with memory impairments in skills such as learning to perform word-processing skills (Hunkin, Squires, Aldrich and Parkin, 1998) and programming an electric organiser (Evans et al., 1998) where training incorporating ‘errorless learning’ led to a more effective acquisition of new skills. Robertson (1999) asserts that crucial to the efficient use of the brain’s systems we should study in a fashion that minimises guessing and maximises trials where there is a strong chance of achieving the correct answer. 2.9.3 Method for recording and evaluating new learning As discussion of previous learning studies demonstrates, there has been much variability in the methods used to evaluate the learning of new information (see section 2.8.6). There are many dimensions to knowing a word and many degrees of knowledge (Laufer and Nation, 1999); therefore in order to facilitate the demonstration of new vocabulary learning and to provide an appropriate method of recording participant performance a suitable model needed to be identified. The model had to enable the evaluation of language difficulties of participants to assess the severity of the aphasia; support the provision of a baseline measure of learning to enable a comparison between pre- and posttraining knowledge; support the methodology for facilitation of learning the new 67
vocabulary; facilitate the demonstration of this learning particularly for those who are unable to do so in spoken and/or written formats; enable measurement of any new learning by participants and finally, to enable predictions to be made about their abilities to learn new vocabulary in consideration of the various presentations of aphasia. SPOKEN WORD PICTURE WRITTEN WORD Auditory Phonological Analyses Abstract Letter Identification Visual/ Object Recognition Phonological Input Lexicon Orthographic Input Lexicon Acoustic to Phonological Conversion Semantic System Letter to Phonological conversion Phonological Output Lexicon Orthographic Output Lexicon Copy Letters Phonological Output Buffer Phonological to Letter Conversion Graphemic Output Buffer Speech Writing Figure 2i Cognitive neuropsychology model of single word processing (Kay et al., 1992) 68
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An Investigation into the Ability o
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Abstract Recent studies have establ
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Christine Malcolm (Chief Speech and
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2.6.2.1 Lesion size and site 37 2.6
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3.6.1.2 Number and type of items to
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4.8 Chapter summary 132 Chapter 5 T
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5.9.1.1 Personal attributes 176 5.9
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5.15.1.1 Personal attributes 208 5.
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6.3.3.5 The impact of clock drawing
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Appendices 2.1 Main representative
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5.2 Raw and percentage scores for n
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Figures 2i Cognitive neuropsycholog
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Younger people who are having and s
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Chapter 2 Review of the literature
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sentences. As aphasia also affects
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continue to experience significant
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noted that there were three areas t
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natural reaction to the loss of abi
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2.3.3 Impact of aphasia on the fami
Page 39 and 40: facets of a person’s life as well
Page 41 and 42: with the literature regarding the l
Page 43 and 44: Rehabilitation is not thought to al
Page 45 and 46: everything that we learn and experi
Page 47 and 48: eorganisation in hemiplegic stroke
Page 49 and 50: (Kasten and Sabel, 1995) and replic
Page 51 and 52: 1998), tingling, itching or painful
Page 53 and 54: Emission Tomography (PET) scans ana
Page 55 and 56: ehabilitation, function can be limi
Page 57 and 58: Studies have not always found age t
Page 59 and 60: larger intracranial capacity could
Page 61 and 62: permanent loss of particular skills
Page 63 and 64: depression in people with severe ap
Page 65 and 66: maintenance of permanent records of
Page 67 and 68: intensity aphasia rehabilitation wa
Page 69 and 70: 2.7 CURRENT THEORETICAL ACCOUNTS OF
Page 71 and 72: people with apparently similar char
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Page 75 and 76: information about a word (Harley, 2
Page 77 and 78: (as in semantic dementia) as well a
Page 79 and 80: esearchers (Breedin et al., 1998; W
Page 81 and 82: As many adults have acquired a wide
Page 83 and 84: healthy individuals as mentioned ab
Page 85 and 86: et al. (2001) evaluated the ability
Page 87 and 88: of new vocabulary where both the wo
Page 89: syllables in each word, therefore t
Page 93 and 94: methodology developed and used in t
Page 95 and 96: Chapter 3 Preliminary Studies 3.1 I
Page 97 and 98: for the main investigation by the n
Page 99 and 100: 3.2.1.4 Delayed recall Approximatel
Page 101 and 102: written recall assessment task (par
Page 103 and 104: indicates a large reduction of item
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Page 107 and 108: one were discussed with each partic
Page 109 and 110: Graph 3.2 Comparison of number of i
Page 111 and 112: As with preliminary study one, part
Page 113 and 114: during the training session, some p
Page 115 and 116: 3.5 PRELIMINARY STUDY FOUR This stu
Page 117 and 118: Fifty four percent of participants
Page 119 and 120: preliminary studies the British Nat
Page 121 and 122: where main investigation participan
Page 123 and 124: perhaps reduce the number of items
Page 125 and 126: preliminary studies as described in
Page 127 and 128: emember the route taking them from
Page 129 and 130: 4.3 TRAINING SESSION PROCEDURE Each
Page 131 and 132: 4.3.2.1 Training of stimuli: phonol
Page 133 and 134: assessments was administered both i
Page 135 and 136: to match the name and skill present
Page 137 and 138: 4.4.3 Results of P1’s post-traini
Page 139 and 140: Table 4.4 Pilot Study One Total raw
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session. This reflected the general
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4.4.5 Summary of pilot study one Pi
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4.5.2 Results of P2’s performance
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P2 recalled 14 (70%) of the new wor
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demonstrate this learning during im
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4.6.3 Methodological issues A numbe
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would be asked not to repeat the wo
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4.8 CHAPTER SUMMARY The three pilot
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Chapter 5 Main Investigation 5.1 IN
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- The medical stability of particip
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The methodology for the training an
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(i.e. C1, P3 and C2) remained the t
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the immediate recall was not the sa
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Table 5.5 Characteristics of error
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scores (Zigmond and Snaith, 1983) a
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expected that younger participants
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5.4.2.3 Severity of aphasia While t
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5.5 PARTICIPANT C1 Participant C1
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SPOKEN WORD PICTURE WRITTEN WORD Au
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written form again without the aid
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vocabulary than younger participant
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was non-fluent with many repetition
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emembering 49% of information origi
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5.7.1.1 Personal attributes C2 was
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GOB pathways). C2’s speech was ch
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assessment tasks (see Table 5.2), w
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C3’s narration of the Cinderella
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errors with six out of the 20 new w
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5.9.1.4 Rehearsal and consolidation
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achieved 100% recognition on the li
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any other fictional stories so he w
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the reading task. C5 matched eight
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some word-finding difficulties with
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pathways), spell words and non-word
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(reading) words she made 15 false p
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and PLC pathways). C8’s speech wa
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C9’s data (see Table 5.26 and Fig
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assessments indicated that she had
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5.15.1.1 Personal attributes C10 wa
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naming. C10 had some difficulties c
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SPOKEN WORD PICTURE WRITTEN WORD Au
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Table 5.31 C11’s detailed perform
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influencing factors (for example, a
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each participant’s relevant data,
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Table 5.32 Hierarchical cluster ana
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for months post-stroke, severity of
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Table 5.33 Correlation co-efficient
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ecency and primacy effect, however,
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drawing skills and the ability to l
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with the creation of new neuronal c
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5.8.2.1). Secondly, the participant
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6.3.1.1 The impact of age on the le
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education that an individual experi
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unethical, even perhaps illegal, to
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assessment and treatment of emotion
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theories on the negative effects of
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(CLQT) was developed as a screening
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6.3.3.2 The impact of memory on the
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(executive scores of moderate, mild
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320). Additionally, the CLQT indica
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6.3.4.1 Pre-training language scree
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abilities of each participant and a
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person with aphasia only ever produ
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6.4.2 Methodology As previous resea
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assessing the learning of new vocab
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provided flexibility not only for s
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presentation. It was proposed that
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participants also lexicalised the n
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module and how it communicates with
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theory of rehabilitation and in rel
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experience in different ways and ch
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upon language rehabilitation, for e
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the investigation of people with po
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Further statistical analyses with a
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extend the examination of the abili
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task), severity of aphasia and amou
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References Alexander, M. P. (1994)
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Candia, V., Schafer, Th., Taub, E.,
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Fillingham, J. K., Sage, K. and Lam
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Howard and Hatfield (1987) Aphasia
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Linebaugh, C. W. (1999) Merging the
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Nation, I. S. P. (1983) Teaching an
Page 325 and 326:
Scheibel, A., Conrad, T., Perdue, S
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Warrington, E. K. and McCarthy (198
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Appendix 3.1 Preliminary study one:
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Appendix 3.2 (continued) Preliminar
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Appendix 3.4a Preliminary study two
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Appendix 3.6 Stimuli used for the m
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Appendix 3.6 (continued) Stimuli us
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Appendix 4.1 Methods of learning ne
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Appendix 4.2 Hospital Anxiety and D
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Appendix 4.2 (Continued) Hospital A
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Appendix 4.4 Non-linguistic learnin
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Appendix 4.5 Language screening ass
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Appendix 4.6 Familiar, trained and
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Appendix 4.8 Examples of written an
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APPENDIX 5.2 Participant consent fo
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Appendix 5.3 (Continued) Narrations
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Appendix 5.3 (Continued) Narrations
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Appendix 5.4 (continued) Hierarchic
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Page 363 and 364:
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Appendix 5.5 (continued) Group corr
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Appendix 5.5 (continued) Group corr
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Appendix 5.7 Total recall of tasks
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