Principles of Plant Genetics and Breeding

Ethics in plant breeding
Manipulating plants through conventional plant breeding
efforts have generally proceeded without fanfare
and objections from the consumers. Significant protestations
from the consuming public started when plant
breeders added biotechnology to their tool bag.
The biotechnology debate
Public perceptions about biotechnology products are
rooted in the perceived risks that these products pose
to social and personal values. Public reaction to biotechnology
often is influenced by activism and special
interest propaganda. The biotechnology debate is
rooted in three fundamental disagreements:
1 Scientific disagreements. Society is concerned about
the potential risk that the development and application
of biotechnology poses to humans, animals, and
environmental health. These issues involve empirical
questions and are usually resolved by scientific methods.
However, they are not exclusively resolvable by
the scientific method of enquiry. Sometimes, value
judgment is critical in their resolution. For example,
the way to handle uncertainties in scientific data and
definition of the levels of risk deemed acceptable are
both value judgments.
2 Political disagreements. Political disagreements are
generally about the social and economic impacts of
biotechnology based on the various political viewpoints.
Political disagreements usually intensify during
an election season and may swing in favor of one
side, depending on the dominant political ideology
of the day.
3 Religious, ethical, and philosophical disagreements.
These disagreements are often faith-based
and include issues about morality and whether scientists
are playing God, or whether the biotechnology
products are natural. Faith-based disagreements are
difficult to resolve in a pluralistic society. Sometimes,
such issues incite extremist acts or vigilantism (e.g.,
destroying field tests or laboratory projects).
Concepts of ethics, morals, and values
The following brief introduction to ethics, morals, and
values, is designed to help the student become better
equipped to participate in debates that center around
these issues in relation to genetic manipulation of plants.
Ethics is the science of morals in human conduct (i.e.,
study of moral principles). Morals are concerned with
ISSUES IN THE APPLICATION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IN PLANT BREEDING 263
the accepted rules and standards of human behavior in
a society. They involve the concept of right or wrong, and
the goodness or badness of human character or behavior.
Value is basically the worth attached to something.
In other words, ethics is evaluative of the decisions people
make and the actions they take as they are presented
with dilemmas. Morality depends on values in order to
determine the goodness or badness of an action. In a
pluralistic society, there are differences in the sense of
values (i.e., relativism). Consequently, there are a variety
of moral theories that do not necessarily constitute
truth. Further, law, religion, and custom should be distinguished
from morality. In law, lawmakers define what
is right or wrong. Those who break the law are subject
to punishment prescribed by the legislature. In religion,
right or wrong is based on revelation or scriptural
authority. Whatever choice that is made has eternal consequences.
In the case of custom, tradition determines
what is acceptable or not, and society expresses approval
or disapproval of an action.
Plant biotechnology: ethical and value issues
The issues raised in this section are only a sample of
public opinions intended to generate discussion, not to
support the author’s point of view. The issue of ethics,
morals, and values in society is more important in a society
in which religion is important to a significant portion
of the population. Where there is a belief in God the
Creator, a major source of discord in society regarding
biotechnology is the notion that scientists are playing
God when they fail to respect human limitations. God,
humanity, and nature are linked, God being the creator
of both the latter. Some people see nature as God’s
creation for the benefit of humans who therefore can use
plants, animals, and the ecosystem for their purposes, as
they deem necessary. Others see nature as a sacred creation
that must be respected and not tempered with.
Does this respect mean that humans cannot manipulate
nature? What cannot be denied is that the Creator has
endowed humans with considerable creative genius.
The obvious question then is whether exercising creativity
through plant breeding and biotechnology is within
the scope of this endowment or whether it is tantamount
to an infringement on divine prerogative? For
those who see nature as a gift to humans for their use,
recombining genetic materials may be justified as just
another way of using natural resources.
In order for us to be correctly evaluative of our
choices, decisions, and acts as they pertain to genetic
manipulation, there is the need for certain basic sets of